1 


** 


THE  HANDY  NATURAL  HISTORY 


Plate   I. 


2.Orang-Outan 


3.  Gorilla 


4.  Chimpanzee 


THE  HANDY 
NATURAL  HISTORY 


By 

ERNEST  PROTHEROE,  F.Z.S. 

\\ 


With  318  Illustrations 
136  being  in  full  color 


BOSTON 
RICHARD  G.  BADGER 

83)  e  (gorftam 

IQIO 


BIOLOGY 

LIBRARY 

G 


All  rights  reserved 
$ 


Preface 


THE  study  of  Natural  History  affords  many  solid 
advantages  and  not  a  few  pure  dwlights,  since  it  gives 
to  the  heart  of  man  simple  and  sweet  enjoyment  while 
tending  to  develop  some  of  the  noblest  sentiments  of  his 
being.  In  the  Animal  Kingdom  the  order,  the  design, 
the  harmony  observable  in  its  laws,  the  marvels  of 
structure  and  mechanism  and  the  economy  observable 
on  every  hand,  are  all  proofs  of  the  Divine  wisdom 
and  superintendence. 

The  present  work  is  primarily  intended  to  encourage 
an  intelligent  interest  in  the  subject  by  that  large  class  of 
readers  who  have  neither  the  time  nor  the  taste  for  intricate 
technical  details  ;  and  for  this  reason  an  animal  is  some- 
times presented  out  of  the  order  which  a  rigid  scientific 
classification  would  demand.  Though  it  make  no  preten- 
sions to  be  a  scientific  manual,  it  is  hoped  it  will  furnish 
an  interesting  and  accurate  account  of  the  Mammals  of 
the  world.  Apart  from  mere  information,  it  will  at  least 
lead  to  a  'kindly  feeling  for  all  that  God  has  created,  and 
assist  to  a  sympathetic  understanding  of  the  dumb  creatures 
who  minister  to  our  wants  and  necessities,  our  comforts, 
our  passions,  and  our  pride. 

Some  of  the  older  explorers  and  hunters,  whose  names 
occur  in  the  text,  encountered  various  wild  beasts  in  regions 
from  which  civilisation  has  since  driven  them,  and  before 
fire-arms  had  reached  their  present-day  range  and  precision ; 
but  reference  is  also  made  to  great  modern  Nimrods  who 
have  recently  hunted  big  game  in  every  quarter  of  the 


iii 


255130 


iv  PREFACE 

globe.  For  permission  to  use  various  extracts  thanks 
are  tendered  to  Country  Life,  Ltd.  (Big  Game  Shooting); 
Messrs.  Hurst  &  Blackett  (Lake  Ngami  or  Explorations  and 
Discoveries) ;  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.  (Eight  Years  in  Ceylon) ; 
Macmillan  &  Co.  (A  Hunter's  Wanderings  in  Africa,  Nile 
Tributaries  of  Abyssinia,  and  The  Malay  Archipelago) ;  and 
Mr.  John  Murray  (Livingstone's  Missionary  Travels  and 
Researches).  These  extracts  alone  refer  to  C.  J.  Andersonn, 
Sir  Samuel  Baker,  H.  A.  Bryden,  Major  C.  S.  Cumberland, 

E.  D.  Cuming,  Livingstone,  F.  C.  Selous,  and  A.  R.  Wallace. 
Other  well-known  writers,  e.g.,  Rev.   ].   G.   Wood   and 

F.  T.   Bullen,  are  quoted   in   various   places,   but   in  the 
course  of  much  general  reading,  however,  the  exact  source 
of  a  quotation  may  have  escaped  notice,  and  must  per- 
force be  covered  by  a  general  expression  of  indebtedness. 
Great  care  has  been   taken  to  avoid   inaccuracies,  though 
it  is  almost  impossible  that  none  should  have   crept  in 
among  the  many  thousands  of  facts  that  go  to  make  up 
the  volume. 


Contents 

CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

A   BIRD'S-EYE   VIEW   OF   THE   WORLD   OF   NATURE 

PAGE 

Nature,  inorganic  and  organic — The  Creation — Man's  demands 
upon  the  Animal  World — A  journey  into  the  ways  and  byways 
of  the  Animal  World — The  Vertebrate  Animals — The  Inver- 
tebrate Animals  —  Mammalia — Aves — Reptilia — Batrachia — 
Pisces — Table  of  the  orders  of  the  class  Mammalia — Scientific 
names  of  Animals— The  threshold  of  our  task — The  riches  and 
treasures  of  God's  love  and  goodness I 

CHAPTER   II 
ORDER   I.— PRIMATES 

SUB-ORDER   i.— BIMANA   (MAN) 

Man,  the  most  perfect  of  all  created  beings — Man's  attitude  and 
strength  —  Reasoning  faculties  atone  for  natural  physical 
deficiencies — The  bony  skeleton — Vertebral  column — Muscles 
— Brain  and  nerves — Circulation  of  the  blood — Digestion — 
Teeth — Respiration — The  distribution  of  man — The  Caucasian 
or  White  family — The  Negro  family — The  Mongolian  family 
— Varieties  of  the  Yellow  Race— Man  the  dominating  force  in 
the  world — Labour's  magic  wand — The  curse  mitigated  .  .  15 

CHAPTER   III 

ORDER   I.— PRIMATES   (continued) 
SUB-ORDER   2.— QUADRUMANA,   OR   THE    MONKEY   TRIBE 

The  Quadrumana,  or  four-handed  animals — Man  and  the  Monkey 
from  an  anatomical  point  of  view  —  Monkey  Speech  —  The 


vi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Origin  of  Species  —  The  Anthropoidea  —  The  Catarrhine 
Monkeys:  Family  Simiidae  :  Gorilla  —  Chimpanzee  —  Orang- 
Outan — Gibbons — Siamang — Family  Cercopithecidae  :  Genus 
Cercopithecus :  Green  Monkey — Pig-tailed  Macaque — Barbary 
Ape — Wanderoo — Yellow  Baboon — Chacma — Thoth — Mandrill 
—Diana  Monkey— White-nosed  Monkey— Mangabey— Patas 
or  Red  Monkey — Genus  Semnopithecus :  Hanuman  Monkey — 
Proboscis  Monkey — Platyrrhine  Monkeys:  Spider  Monkey — 
Coaita  —  Red  Howler  —  Capuchin  Monkey  —  Saki  —  Hand- 
drinker  —  Douroucouli  —  Marmoset — Lion  Tamarin — Lemur- 
oidea:  Ruffled  Lemur — Ring-tailed  Lemur  —  Brown  Mouse 
Lemur  —  Slender  Loris  —  Slow  Loris  —  Galago  —  Tarsier— 
Aye-aye — Dermoptera:  Colugo 31 


CHAPTER   IV 
ORDER  II.— CHIROPTERA  (BATS) 

General  description  of  the  Chiroptera  —  Long-eared  Bat  — 
— Pipistrelle  Bat— Barbastelle  Bat — Whiskered  Bat — Horse- 
shoe Bats  —  Mouse-coloured  Bat  —  Fruit  Bats  —  Kalong  — 
Vampire  Bat — Bat  guano 77 


CHAPTER  V 

ORDER  III.— INSECTIVORA  (INSECT-EATERS) 

General  description  of  the  Insectivora  —  Hedgehog  —  Mole  — 
Common  Shrew  —  Pigmy  Shrew  —  Water  Shrew — Elephant 
Shrew — Tanrec — Tana  or  Tree  Shrew — Potamogale  .  .  89 


CHAPTER   VI 

ORDER  IV.— -CARNIVORA   (FLESH-EATERS) 
SUB-ORDER   i.— CARNIVORA  OF  THE   LAND 

General  description  of  the  Carnivora — Family  Felidae  :  Lion — 
Tiger — Leopard  —  Ounce — Jaguar — Puma  —  Ocelot — Fishing 
Cat  —  Serval  —  Wild  Cat  —  Domestic  Cat — Lynx — Caracal — 
Cheetah — Hyasnas — Aard  Wolf — Family  Viverridae  :  Civet — 

Ichneumon  —  Mongoose  —  Genet  —  Parodoxure  —  Binturong 

Suricate  —  Family   Canidse  :    Domestic    Dog — Eskimo   Dog 

Pariah  Dog— Red  Dog  of  the  Deccan— Cape  Hunting  Dog- 
Dingo — Wolf— Coyote— Jackal — Common    Fox — Arctic  Fox — 


CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

Silver  Fox — Fennec  —  Family  Mustelidae  :  Weasel — Stoat  or 
Ermine  —  Polecat — Ferret — Mink —  Marten — Sable — Glutton — 
Badger  —  Cape  Zorilla — Skunk  —  Teledu  —  Common  Otter  — 
Sea  Otter — Family  Procyonidae  :  Raccoon — Coaiti — Kinkajou 
— Cacomistle — Panda— Family  Ursidae  :  Brown  Bear — Grizzly 
Bear — Syrian  Bear — Polar  Bear — Black  Bear — Malayan  Bear 
— Spectacled  Bear — Sloth  Bear 103 


CHAPTER  VII 

ORDER   IV.— CARNIVORA  (continued) 
SUB-ORDER  2.— CARNIVORA    OF    THE    SEA 

General  description  of  the  Pinnipedia — Common  Seal— Grey  Seal 

—  Bladder-nose    or    Crested     Seal — Greenland     Seal  —  Sea 
Leopard — Sea  Elephant — Sea  Lion — Sea  Bear,  or  Northern 
Fur  Seal— Walrus 189 

CHAPTER  VIII 
ORDER  V.— RODENTIA   (GNAWING  ANIMALS) 

SUB-ORDER  i.— SIMPLE-TOOTHED   RODENTS 
SUB-ORDER  2.— DOUBLE-TOOTHED   RODENTS 

General  description  of  the  Rodentia  —  Table  of  Sub-orders — 
Common  Squirrel — Grey  Squirrel — Taguan  Flying  Squirrel — 
Polatouche  —  Assapan  —  Anomalure  —  Chipmunk  —  Marmot — 
Woodchuck  —  Prairie  Dog — Beaver — Mouse-like  Rodents — 
House  Mouse — Field  Mouse — Harvest  Mouse — Dormouse — 
Black  Rat — Brown  Rat — Field  Vole — Water  Vole — Musquash 

—  Hamster  —  Lemming  —  Jerboa  —  Cape    Jumping    Hare  — 
Porcupine  —  Chinchilla  —  Viscacha  —  Agouti  —  Guinea  Pig — 
Capybara— Hare— Wild  Rabbit— Tame  Rabbit— Pika        .        .    207 


CHAPTER   IX 
ORDER  VI.— UNGULATA   (HOOFED  ANIMALS) 

SUB-ORDER  i.— HYRACOIDEA 

SUB-ORDER  2.— PROBOSCIDEA  (PROBOSCIS  BEARERS) 

SUB-ORDER  3.— PERISSODACTYLA  (ODD-TOED  ANIMALS) 

General  description   of  the  Ungulata — Sub-order  i.  Hyracoidea : 
Syrian   Hyrax — Sub-order  2.    Proboscidea:    Elephant  —  Sub- 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

order  3.  Perissodactyla :  General  description  of  Rhinoceros 
family — Indian  Rhinoceros — Other  Asiatic  species — African 
Rhinoceros — Tapirs — Family  Equidse  :  Horse — Wild  Ass — 
Domestic  Ass — Zebra — Quagga 249 

CHAPTER   X 

ORDER  VI.— UNGULATA  (continued) 

SUB-ORDER  4.— ARTIODACTYLA  (EVEN-TOED  ANIMALS) 

GROUP  I.—RUMINANTIA 

Sub-order  4.  Artiodactyla  —  Group  I.  Ruminantia :  General 
description  of  the  Pecora,  or  true  Ruminants  —  Hollow- 
horned  Ruminants :  Family  Bovidae  :  Domestic  Ox — Zebu — 
Wild  Oxen — Gaur — Gayal — Banting — Yak — European  Bison 

—  American    Bison  —  Indian    Buffalo  —  Cape    Buffalo — Anoa 
— Musk  Ox — Sheep    and    Goats — Domestic    Sheep — Mouflon 
— Argali — Pamir  Wild  Sheep — Barbary  Wild  Sheep — Bighorn 

—  Common    Goat  —  Angora    Goat  —  Kashmir   Goat  —  Ibex  — 
Markhor — Tahr — Various    Wild    Goats — Family  Antilopidae: 
General    description — Chamois — Gazelle — Springbok— Gems- 
bok — Oryx — Equine  Antelope — Sable  Antelope — Waterbuck — 
Eland  —  Gnu  —  Nilgai  —  Prong-horned       Antelope  —  Saiga 
Antelope  —  Klipspringer  —  Kudu  —  Hartebeest  —  Blesbok  — 
Addax — Royal  Antelope — Dik-Dik  Antelope — Family    Came- 
lopardalidae  :      Giraffe  —  Okapi  —  Solid-horned     Ruminants : 
Family   Cervidae  :    General  description  —  Red    Deer — Fallow 
Deer — Roe   Deer  —  Elk  —  Reindeer  —  Wapiti — Virginian  Deer 

—  Mule    Deer — Pampas    Deer — Brockets— Pudu    Deer— Axis 
Deer — Sambar  —  Schomburgk's    Deer — Eld's  Deer — Muntjac 
—Japanese  Water  Deer — Chinese   Water   Deer — Elaphure — 
Musk  Deer 289 


CHAPTER  XI 
ORDER  VI.— UNGULATA 

SUB-ORDER   4.— ARTIODACTYLA   (continued} 

GROUP  IL—TRAGULINA  (CHEVROTAINS) 

GROUP  IIL—TYLOPADA  (CAMELS) 

GROUP  IV.—SUINA  (SWINE-LIKE  ANIMALS} 

Group  II.  Tragulina  (the  Chevrotalns)  —  Kanchil.  Group  III. 
Tylopada:  General  description  —  Arabian  Camel  —  Bactrian 
Camel  —  Llama  —  Alpaca  —  Guanaco  —  Vicuna.  Group  IV. 
Suina  :  Wild  Boar  —  Domestic  Swine  —  Babyrussa  —  Wart 
Hog— Peccary — Hippopotamus 369 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTER    XII 

ORDER  VII.— SIRENIA  (MANATEES) 

PAGE 

General  description  of  the  Sirenia — Manatee — Dugong  .        .        .    395 

CHAPTER  XIII 

ORDER  VIIL— CETACEA  (WHALES    AND 
DOLPHINS) 

General  description  of  the  Cetacea — Greenland  Whale — Southern 
Right  Whale  —  Common  Rorqual  —  Humpback  Whale  — 
Cachalot  or  Sperm  Whale — Narwhal — Porpoise — Dolphin — 
Killer  Whale 401 

CHAPTER  XIV 

ORDER   IX.— EDENTATA   (TOOTHLESS 
ANIMALS) 

General  description  of  the  Edentata  —  Three-toed  Sloth  —  Two- 
toed  Sloth  —  Great  Ant-eater  —  Aardvark  —  Pangolin  — 
Armadillo 419 

CHAPTER   XV 

ORDER  X.— MARSUPIALIA  (POUCHED 
ANIMALS) 

General  description  of  the  Marsupialia — Great  Grey  Kangaroo — 
Tree  Kangaroo — Wallaby — Rat  Kangaroo — Family  Phalan- 
gitidae:  Spotted  Cuscus  —  Flying  Phalanger  —  Koala — 
Wombat — Bandicoot — Family  Dasyuridae  :  Tasmanian  Devil 
or  Ursine  Dasyure — Tasmanian  Wolf  or  Thylacine — Phasco- 
logales — Banded  Ant-eater — Pouched  Mole— Opossum  .  .  429 


CHAPTER   XVI 
ORDER  XL— MONOTREMATA 

General  description  of  the  Monotremata— Echidna— Duckbill       .    451 


List  of  Illustrations 


COLOURED   PLATES 
A  Welcome  Return       .....  Frontispiece 

PLATE  FACING  PAGE 

I.     i.  White-handed  Gibbon.      2.  Orang-Outan.  3.  Gorilla. 

4.  Chimpanzee       .            .            .            .  .                  i 
II.     i.  Red  Howler.    2.  BarbaryApe.    3.  Baboon.  4.  Siamang. 

5.  Mandrill              .            .            .            .  .            .16 

III.  i.  Aye- Aye.     2.  Green    Monkey.     3.  Capuchin    Monkey. 

4.  Slender   Loris.      5.  Ruffled   Lemur.      6.  Hanuman 
Monkey       .  .  .  .  .  .  .55 

IV.  i.  Vampire    Bat.        2.  Pipistrelle.       3.  Long-eared    Bat. 

4.  Mouse-coloured  Bat.   5.  Moje.  6.  Tanrec.  7.  Water 
Shrew.    8.  Elephant  Shrew.    9.  Hedgehog      .  .    88 

V.     i.  Puma.     2.  Tiger.    3.  Lion  .  .  .  .  .117 

VI.     i.  Leopard.     2.  Cheetah.    3.  Lynx.     4.  Jaguar         .  .  124 

VII.     i.  Striped  Hyaena.  2.  Spotted  Hyaena.  3.  Wolf.  4.  Jackal  .  139 
VIII.     i.  Civet.    2.  Ichneumon.    3.  Mongoose.    4.  Common  Fox. 

5.  Arctic  Fox         .  .  .  .  .  142 
IX.     i.  Otter.      2.  Sable.      3.  Stoat.     4.  Polecat.      5.  Marten. 

6.  Weasel.    7.  Ferret.    8.  Mink  .  .  .161 
X.     i.  Kinkajou.    2.  Skunk.    3.  Coaiti.    4.  Glutton.    5.  Badger. 

6.  Raccoon  .  .  .  .  .  .176 

XL     i.  Brown  Bear.     2.  Polar  Bear  .  .  .  .187 

XII.     i.  Sea  Lion.    2.  Sea  Leopard.    3.  Common  Seal.    4.  Sea 

Bear.    5.  Walrus   ......  202 

XIII.     i.  Guinea  Pig.      2.  Chinchilla.     3.  Porcupine.     4.  Rabbit. 
5.  Capybara.    6.  Hare.    7.  Golden  Agouti.    8.  Syrian 
Hyrax          .  .  .  .  .  .  .211 

XIV.     i.  Brown  Rat.     2.  Lemming.     3.  Musquash.    4.  Squirrel. 

5.  Tana.  6.  Hamster.  7.  Marmot.  8.  Jerboa.  9.  Beaver  .  234 
XV.     i.  Rhinoceros.     2.  African  Elephant  ....  257 

XVI.     i.  Wild  Ass.    2.  Horse 274 

XVIL    i.  Quagga.    2.  Domestic  Ass.    3.  Zebra.   4.  Malayan  Tapir  .  287 


Xll 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATE 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 


Merino    Sheep.       2.  Domestic    Swine. 

4.  Domestic  Goat.  5.  Cow  and  Calf 
European  Bison.  2.  Yak.  3.  Zebu  . 
Mouflon.  2.  Chamois.  3.  Argali 


FACING  PAGE 

Sheep. 

.  294 
.  301 


i.  Ibex.  2.  Equine  Antelope.  3.  Gazelle.  4.  Waterbuck  327 

•  330 

•  339 
.  346 


i.  Gnu.    2.  Eland   ...... 

Giraffe  ..... 

i.  Red  Deer.    2.  Muntjac.    3.  Roe  Deer 
i.  Musk  Deer.    2.  Kanchil.    3.  Fallow  Deer      . 
i.  Elk.    2.  Reindeer  ... 

i.  Llama.    2.  Bactrian  Camel       . 
i.  Wild  Boar.    2.  Babyrussa.    3.  Hippopotamus 
i.  Cachalot.     2.    Greenland  Whale.     3.  Humpbacked 
Whale   .  .  .  .  . 


354 
369 
384 

403 


Narwhal. 


Killer 


414 


i.    Manatee.      2.    Dugong. 

Whale.    5.  Dolphin     .... 
i.   Armadillo.       2.   Three-toed    Sloth.       3.    Pangolin. 

4.  Wombat.    5.  Great  Anteater         .  .  .  419 

i.  Bandicoot.    2.  Banded  Anteater.    3.  Marsupial  Mole. 

4.  Opossum.     5.  Flying  Phalanger.    6.  Kangaroo  .  430 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 


PLATES 

Galago.    2.  Young  Orang-Outan  ... 

Pig-tailed  Macaque.    2.  Patas  Monkey 

Mangabey.    2.  Wanderoo         . 

Spider  Monkey.    2.  Common  Marmoset 

Colugo.     2.  Brown  Mouse  Lemur 

Kalong.     2.  Barbastelle  Bat  walking   . 
Heads  of  :  i.  Vampire  Bat.    2.  Greater  Horseshoe  Bat. 
3.  Long-Eared  Bat.    4.  Kalong  (natural  size) 

Domestic  Cat.     2.  Wild  Cat  (Scotland) 

Caracal.    2.  Caracal  Cub.    3.  Ocelot   . 

Suricate.     2.  Genet.    3.  Serval . 

Fox  Terriers.    2.  Pointer.    3.  Greyhound 

Eskimo  Dog.     2.  Poodle.     3.  Newfoundland  Dog 

Cape  Hunting  Dog.     2.  Dingo  . 

Prairie  Wolf.    2.  Aard  Wolf     .... 

Fennec.    2.  Albino  Wolf  .... 

Grizzly  Bear        ...... 

Malayan  Bear.    2.  Sloth  Bear   .... 
Seal  Rookery  and  Sea  Elephant     .... 
American  Grey  Squirrels     ..... 
i.  Flying  Squirrels.     2.  Water  Vole 
i.  Polatouche.    2.  Anomalure        .  .  .  . 

I.  Field  Voles.    2.  Prairie  Dog     .... 


32 

33 
64 

65 
75 
86 

87 
128 
129 
144 

H5 
148 
149 
156 

157 

182 

183 
196 
208 
209 

215 

224 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Xlll 


PLATE 

XXIII.  .  Harvest  Mice.    2.  House  Mice 

XXIV.  .  Dormice.    2.  Black  Rat.    3.  Chipmunk 

XXV.  .  Spiny  Mouse.    2.  Tree  Porcupine.    3.  Viscacha 

XXVI.  .  American  Tapir.    2.  Indian  Elephant 

XXVII.  .  Foals.     2.  Cart  Horse  .... 

XXVIII.  .  American  Bison.     2.  English  Wild  Bull 

XXIX.  i.  Barbary  Wild  Sheep.     2.  Gayal 

XXX.  i.  Musk  Ox.    2.  Angora  Goats    . 

XXXI.  i.  Tahr.     2.  Markhor       .... 

XXXII.  i.  Young  Pronghorn.     2.  Nilgai  Antelope 

XXXIII.  i.  Klipspringer.     2.  Beatrix  Antelope    . 

XXXIV.  i.  Dik-Dik  Antelope.    2.  Addax  Antelope 
XXXV.  i.  Giraffe.    2.  Swamp  Deer 

XXXVI.  Antlers  of  the  Red  Deer    .... 

XXXVII.     Head  of  a  Wapiti 

XXXVIII.  i.  Sambar  Deer.    2.  Axis  Deer  . 

XXXIX.  i.  Okapi.    2.  Dromedary 

XL.  i.  Vicuna.     2.  Wart  Hog 

XLI.  i.  Collared  Peccary.     2.  Aard-vark         .            .            .  391 

XLII.  i.  The    Cachalot's    Fight    for    Power.     2.  A  Sperm 

Whale  Baby  ......  401 

XLIII.  i.  Tree  Kangaroo.    2.  Red-necked  Wallaby     .            .  436 

XLIV.  i.  Spotted  Cuscus.    2.  Rat  Kangaroo     .            .            .  437 

XLV.  i.  Spotted  Dasyure.    2.  Tasmanian  Devil         .            .  <\/\/\ 

XLVI.  i.  Koala  and  Cub.     2.  Thylacine            .            .            .445 

XLVII.  i.  Echidna.    2.  Crab-eating  Opossum    .            .            .  450 

XLVIII.  i.  Head  of  the  Echidna.    2.  Duckbill    .            .            .451 


FACING  PAGE 
•  225 
.238 

239 

272 

273 
304 
305 
320 
321 
332 
336 

337 
342 
343 
358 
359 
374 
382 


ILLUSTRATIONS   IN  THE  TEXT 

PAGE 

Skeleton  of  Man,  walking  attitude        .  .            .  .  .18 

The  Human  Hand         .            .            .  .            .  .  .19 

A  Vertebra          .            .            .            .  .            .  .  .20 

The  Heart  of  Man,  showing  valves      .  .            .  .  .22 

The  Human  Stomach     .            .            .  .            .  .  -23 

Diagram  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood  .            .  .  -25 

Types  of  the  Human  Race        .            .  .            .  .  .    27 

Skeleton  of  Gorilla,  walking  attitude    .  .            .  .  .34 

The  Human  Foot           .            .            .  .            .  .  .35 

Foot  and  Hand  of  a  Monkey    .            .  .            .  .  .     36 

A  Catarrhine  Monkey    .            .            .  .            .  .  -39 

Ankle  and  Foot  Bones  of  Gorilla ;  Ankle  and  Foot  Bones  of  Man  .    41 

Skull  of  the  Gorilla         .            .            .  .            .  .  .42 

Skull  of  the  Chimpanzee           .            .  .            .  .  .45 

Skeleton  of  the  Orang-outan     .            .  .            .  .  .48 


xiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Skeleton  of  the  Siamang           .            .                       .  .    $2 

Skeleton  of  the  Mandrill           ....  .60 

Foot  and  Hand  of  the  Mangabey         .  .  .    61 

A  Platyrrhine  Monkey  ....  .64 

Hand  of  a  Spider  Monkey        .            .            .            .  .  .66 

Skeleton  of  the  Ruffled  Lemur             .            .            .  .71 

Sole  of  Foot  of  Garnett's  Galago          ...  .73 

Skull  of  the  Aye-Aye      .            .            .            .            •  •  -74 

Foot  and  Hand  of  the  Aye-Aye            .            .            .  •  -75 

Hind  Foot  of  the  Colugo          ....  .75 

Bones  of  Hind  Foot  of  the  Colugo       .            .            .  .  .76 

Skeleton  of  the  Mouse-coloured  Bat    .  .  .    80 

Skeleton  of  the  Hedgehog        ...  .  .    92 

Skeleton  of  the  Mole      ...  ...    95 

The  Mole's  Fortress       .            .            .            .            .  .  .    96 

Fore  Limbs  of  the  Common  Mole        ...  .97 

Sole  of  Hind  Foot  of  Elephant  Shrew             .  .  100 
Lion's  Claw — Sheathed  and  Unsheathed        ....  106 

The  Mechanism  of  a  Cat's  Retractile  Claw     .            .  .  .109 

Skeleton  of  the  Lion      .            .            .            .            .  .  .in 

Skull  of  the  Lion            .            .            .            .            .  .  .114 

Teeth  of  the  Domestic  Cat  ...  131 

Skull  of  the  Hyaena        .            .            .            .            .  .  .135 

Skeleton  of  the  Civet     ...                       .  .141 

Skull  of  the  Domestic  Dog       .            .            .            .  .  .145 

Skull  of  the  Wolf 152 

Skeleton  of  the  Weasel .            .            .            .            .  .  .161 

Skull  of  the  Polecat       .            .            .            .            .  .  .164 

Skeleton  of  the  Badger             .            .            .            .  .  .170 

Skull  of  the  Otter           .           .           .           .           .  .  .174 

Skull  of  the  Kinkajou     .            .            .            .            .  .  .179 

Skeleton  of  the  Polar  Bear 186 

Skeleton  of  the  Seal       .            .           .            .            .  .  .192 

Hind  Flippers  of  the  Seal                                             .  .  194 

Skeleton  of  the  Sea  Lion  (walking  attitude)    .            .  .  .199 

Vertical  Section  of  the  Skin  of  the  Fur  Seal   ....  200 

Skull  and  Dentition  of  the  Walrus       .....  204 

Head  of  a  Rabbit           .....  .210 

Claws  of  the  Squirrel     .            .            .                       .  .  .211 

Jaws  of  the  Beaver        .            .            .            •            .  •  .221 

Tail  of  the  Beaver          .            .            .            .            .  .  .221 

Skull  of  the  Mouse         .....  .223 

Skull  of  the  Rat .  227 

Skeleton  of  the  Jerboa  .            .            .            .            .  .  .236 

Jaws  of  the  Hare            .            .            .            .            .  .243 

Skeleton  of  the  Rabbit  .            .            .            .            .  .  .246 

Skeleton  of  the  Indian  Elephant          .           .           .  .  .253 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 


Skeleton  of  the  Mammoth        ......  255 

Molar  Teeth  of  the  Elephant    .  .  .  .  .  .256 

Section  of  Skull  of  the  Indian  Elephant          ....  260 

Skeleton  of  the  Rhinoceros      .  .  .  .  ...  267 

Fore  and  Hind  Foot  of  the  Tapir        ...  .272 

Skeleton  of  the  Horse    .  .  .  .  .  .  .275 

Hand  and  Foot  of  the  Horse    ......  277 

Foot  of  the  Horse  with  Shoe    .  .  .  .  .  .278 

Frog  of  the  Horse's  Hoof  .  .  .  .  .278 

Dentition  of  the  Horse  .......  279 

Stomach  of  a  Ruminant  ......  292 

Section  of  the  Stomach  of  a  Ruminant  ....  293 

Foot  of  the  Cow  .......  295 

Skeleton  of  the  Cow      .  .  .  .  .  .  .296 

Horns  of  the  Cape  Buffalo        ......  306 

Horns  of  the  Anoa         .......  307 

Bones  of  the  Fore  Foot  of  the  Sheep  .  .  .  .  .310 

Foot  of  the  Sheep          .......  310 

Skeleton  of  the  Sheep    .  .  .  .  .  .  .311 

Horns  of  the  Pamir  Sheep        .  .  .  .  .  .315 

Foot  of  the  Goat  .  .  .  .  .  .  .316 

Skeleton  of  the  Common  Goat ......  317 

Horns  of  the  Springbok  ......  326 

Horns  of  the  Koodoo    .......  335 

Skeleton  of  the  Giraffe  .  .....  338 

Bones  of  the  Fore  Foot  of  the  Roe  Deer         .  .  .  .351 

Under-view  of  Elk's  Hoof        ......  353 

Antlers  of  the  Virginian  Deer  ......  360 

Antlers  of  Schomburgk's  Deer  .....  364 

Skull  of  the  Musk  Deer  .  .  .  .  .  .367 

Foot  of  the  Camel         .......  372 

Bones  of  the  Fore  Foot  of  the  Camel .  .  .  .  .373 

Water  Cells  of  the  Stomach  of  the  Camel       ....  374 

Foot  of  the  Llama          .  .  .  .  .  .  .379 

Stomach  of  the  Llama  .......  380 

Teeth  of  the  Wild  Boar 384 

Bones  of  the  Foot  of  the  Pig    .  .  .  .  .  .  386 

Skull  of  the  Wart  Hog.  .  .  .  .  .  .390 

Lower  Jaw  of  the  Hippopotamus        .  .  392 

Skeleton  of  the  Manatee  .  .  .  .  .  .398 

Baleen  or  Whalebone   ....  .  405 

Skeleton  of  the  Spermaceti  Whale       .....  412 

Fore  Foot  of  the  Three-toed  Sloth       .  .  .  .  .421 

Skeleton  of  the  Sloth     .  .  .  .  .  .  .423 

Skull  of  the  Cape  Ant-eater      ......  426 

Skeleton  of  the  Armadillo         ......  427 

Skeleton  of  the  Kangaroo         ......  432 


xvi  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Hind  Foot  of  the  Great  Kangaroo       .  .  .  -432 

Teeth  of  the  Great  Kangaroo    .  .  .  .  .  .  434 

Skeleton  of  the  Wombat  ......  442 

Teeth  of  the  Dasyure    .......  444 

Skeleton  of  the  Crab-eating  Opossum  ....  448 

Mouth  and  Nose-Snout  of  the  Echidna  .  .  .  .  454 

Fore  Foot  of  the  Duckbill        .  .  .  .  .  .455 

Under-view  of  the  Bill  of  the  Duckbill  ....  455 


Chapter  I 


INTRODUCTION 

A    BIRD'S-EYE    VIEW    OF   THE    WORLD 
OF   NATURE 


Nature,  inorganic  and  organic — The  Creation — 
Man's  demands  upon  the  Animal  World — A 
journey  into  the  ways  and  byways  of  the 
Animal  World — The  Vertebrate  Animals — 
The  Invertebrate  Animals — Mammalia — Aves 

-Reptilia— Batrachia— Pisces— Table  of  the 
orders  of  the  class  Mammalia  —  Scientific 
names  of  Animals — The  threshold  of  our  task 

—The  riches  and  treasures  of  God's  love  and 
goodness. 


CHAPTER   I 

Introduction 

A  BIRD'S-EYE    VIEW    OF    THE    WORLD    OF 

NATURE 

NATURAL  history  in  its  widest  sense  deals  with  the 
entire  universe,  or  everything  which  God  created 
in  the  beginning.  More  often,  however,  it  is  applied  to 
a  description  of  the  earth  and  its  productions ;  and  not 
infrequently  it  is  restricted  to  the  animal  kingdom  alone. 

The  study  of  inorganic  nature  opens  up  to  us  a  vast 
realm  of  bewildering  interest.  The  blue  ethereal  sky  from 
which  by  day  shine  the  life-giving  sun,  and  by  night 
the  silvery  moon,  or  myriads  of  twinkling  stars  !  The  great 
globe  revolving  in  illimitable  space  !  The  restless,  rolling 
ocean,  fed  by  mighty  rivers  that  rise  in  stupendous  moun- 
tains capped  by  everlasting  snow  !  The  sweltering  heat 
of  the  Tropics,  the  equable  climate  of  the  Temperate  zones, 
the  icy  breath  of  the  Polar  regions  !  The  morning  dew, 
the  evening  mist,  the  gentle  rain,  the  feathery  snow  !  The 
balmy  zephyr,  the  swelling  breeze,  the  howling  hurricane  ! 
The  fiery  volcano  and  the  devastating  earthquake  !  The 
procession  of  the  seasons  and  the  flight  of  time !  All 
fill  us  with  profound  wonder,  and  provide  us  with  endless 
scope  for  reflection  upon  the  might,  majesty,  and  wisdom 
of  Him  who  orders  and  controls  the  mighty  forces  of  nature. 

Climate  clothes  the  broad  plains,  the  winding  valleys, 
the  swelling  uplands,  the  hill-tops,  and  even  far  up  the 
sides  of  the  frowning  mountains  of  the  inorganic  globe 
with  vegetation,  according  to  the  heat  and  moisture  brought 
to  them  by  the  changing  seasons.  The  vegetable  life  in 


4  INTRODUCTION 

the  winterless  Torrid  zone  is  most  luxuriant ;  giant  trees 
interlace  their  crowns,  while  underneath  in  the  sombre 
shade  is  a  tangle  of  undergrowth,  through  which  only 
axe  and  billhook  can  make  a  path.  Nutritious  food,  too, 
is  to  be  had  for  the  mere  gathering.  In  the  Temperate 
regions  vegetation  is  less  profuse,  and  summer  changes 
to  winter,  making  it  necessary  for  vegetable  food  to  be 
cultivated  and  stored  for  use  when  the  soil  refuses  to  afford 
further  supplies.  In  the  Frigid  zones,  Nature's  garb  be- 
comes increasingly  scanty  as  we  approach  the  Poles  ;  the 
stunted  trees  give  place  to  shrubs  ;  the  verdant  green  of 
the  grass  declines  until  mosses  and  lichens  are  the  highest 
forms  of  vegetable  life ;  and  all  beyond  is  nothing  but  ever- 
lasting ice  and  snow. 

Vegetation  is  organic  ;  it  is  alive.  We  can  watch  a  plant 
spring  into  life  from  a  tiny  seed  ;  we  can  see  it  put  forth 
its  tender  shoot ;  and  can  study  the  later  development 
of  stem  and  leaves  and  flower  and  fruit.  There  is  nothing 
in  the  whole  realm  of  nature  more  mysterious  than  this 
vital  principle  of  life.  But  though  plants  have  life  they  are 
not  sentient  ;  they  possess  no  faculty  of  sensation  and 
perception ;  they  can  neither  see,  speak,  hear,  taste,  nor 
feel — unless  we  except  a  few  remarkable  insect-eating  plants. 
They  do  not  themselves  possess  the  power  of  movement 
beyond  that  which  is  embodied  in  the  action  of  growth  ; 
they  must  perforce  remain  where  they  have  taken  root,  even 
though  their  situation  prove  unsuitable  to  their  development 
or  become  inimical  to  their  very  existence. 

On  the  fifth  day  of  the  creation  God  said,  '  Let  the  waters 
bring  forth  abundantly  the  moving  creature  that  hath  life, 
and  fowl  that  may  fly  above  the  earth  in  the  open  firma- 
ment of  heaven.'  And  the  next  day  '  God  made  the  beast 
of  the  earth  after  his  kind,  and  cattle  after  their  kind, 
and  everything  that  creepeth  upon  the  earth  after  his 
kind  :  and  God  saw  that  it  was  good.' 

The  earth  thus  became  peopled  with  beings,  organised 
and  living  and  sentient.  On  every  side  resounded  the 
voices  of  creatures  as  varied  in  size  and  form  as  they 
were  complex  in  nature.  To  every  land  region  were  given 
the  animals  best  fitted  to  make  their  homes  there,  according 


MAN'S  DOMINION  OVER  ANIMALS  5 

to  the  surface  and  the  climate.  The  air  was  peopled 
with  busy  tribes  to  wander  through  its  boundless  space ; 
the  waters  teemed  with  life  ;  and  myriads  of  insects  danced 
in  the  sun.  There  was  no  spot  or  object,  however  insigni- 
ficant, upon  the  surface  of  the  earth  that  was  not  peopled 
with  tiny  denizens  to  play  their  part  in  the  great  plan 
of  the  Creator.  Every  leaf  from  a  tree  is  a  whole  world, 
and  every  drop  of  water  a  vast  ocean  to  the  mites  that 
inhabit  them. 

But  the  crowning  work  of  creation  was  only  accom^ 
plished  in  the  production  of  man,  the  image  of  the  Creator 
Himself,  the  last  and  most  excellent  of  God's  mighty 
works.  Of  all  beings  man  is  the  most  highly  organised  ; 
he  possesses  the  quality  of  sentience  in  the  most  marked 
degree.  To  him  was  given  dominion  over  the  whole  of 
the  animal  world.  '  Every  moving  thing  that  liveth  shall 
be  meat  for  you  ;  even  as  the  green  herb  have  I  given 
you  all  things,'  says  the  Word  of  God. 

If  animals  were  able  to  express  themselves  in  speech, 
they  could  assure  us  that  man  compels  them  to  con- 
tribute themselves  not  only  to  his  larder,  but  to  provide 
material  for  numerous  of  his  other  wants  and  comforts, 
to  say  nothing  of  ministering  to  his  amusements  and  even 
his  pride.  There  is  scarcely  anything  that  possesses  life 
which  man  does  not  press  into  his  service  for  food.  So  far 
as  the  reader  is  concerned  it  would  not  be  a  difficult  matter 
to  enumerate  the  animal  flesh  of  which  he  partakes  from 
one  year's  end  to  another,  but  that  is  only  because  other 
animal  food  does  not  come  within  his  economic  range  ; 
and  thus  the  Englishman  does  not  dine  off  the  flesh  of  the 
Polar  bear  for  exactly  the  same  reason  that  the  Eskimo 
abstains  from  roast  beef.  The  British  liking  for  beef  is 
a  national  characteristic,  but  the  Hindu  reverences  the 
cow  and  would  not  defile  himself  by  eating  its  flesh ; 
the  Siamese  abstain  from  taking  the  life  of  any  animal, 
but  there  is  scarcely  any  creature  that  creeps  or  crawls 
of  which  they  will  not  partake,  if  only  it  has  died  a  natural 
death.  The  horse  is  par  excellence  our  beast  of  burden, 
but  though  at  one  time  Christianity  rejected  horseflesh, 
it  is  now  the  common  food  of  some  continental  nations. 


6  INTRODUCTION 

The  lion,  tiger,  jaguar,  and  even  the  evil-smelling  skunk, 
are  eaten  by  man  in  the  regions  inhabited  by  these  animals. 
The  dog  does  not  approve  of  the  rank  and  offensive  flesh  of 
the  hyaena  ;  but  low  type  Arabs  are  less  particular.  We 
esteem  the  dog,  the  friend  of  man,  for  what  may  aptly 
be  termed  his  personal  qualities ;  but  John  Chinaman 
has  encouraged  the  animal  to  adopt  a  vegetable  diet  the 
better  to  fatten  him  up  for  use  as  domestic  meat ;  and 
black  cat  on  a  Chinese  menu  is  always  an  expensive 
item. 

That  the  flesh  of  all  birds  is  more  or  less  palatable  is 
more  easily  understood.  In  the  South  of  Europe  thrushes, 
larks,  and  even  redbreasts  are  sent  to  market  in  immense 
quantities ;  in  Madeira  '  fried  canaries '  are  a  common 
dish.  For  sentimental  reasons  we  should  object  to  dine  on 
these  '  sweet  birds  that  breathe  the  spirit  of  song,  and 
surround  heaven's  gate  in  melodious  throng.'  For  other 
reasons  we  should  decline  the  flesh  of  a  vulture  that  had 
picked  up  its  living  around  the  Towers  of  Silence,  outside 
Bombay,  where  the  Parsees  expose  their  dead  for  food  for 
these  most  repulsive  specimens  of  the  feathered  world.  Of 
all  our  animal  foods  we  pay  special  attention  to  the  freshness 
of  fish  ;  but  the  Gold  Coast  negro  prefers  his  shark-flesh 
when  it  is  well  advanced  towards  putrefaction.  Even 
reptiles  and  insects  minister  to  man's  appetite.  They  may 
be  hideous  in  shape  and  movement,  loathsome  and  veno- 
mous to  touch,  but  man  will  not  forgo  his  claims  to  utilise 
them.  Crocodiles  and  snakes,  frogs  and  worms,  and  even 
centipedes  form  the  basis  of  meals  in  different  regions. 
These  are  but  a  few  examples  to  show  how  man  exercises 
his  dominion  over  the  animal  world  in  the  satisfaction  of 
his  omni-carnivorous  appetite. 

In  addition  to  flesh  and  milk  (butter  and  cheese),  the 
inferior  creation  supplies  man  with  skins,  fur,  wool,  hair, 
bristles,  horns,  bone,  ivory,  oils,  &c.,  out  of  which  he 
fashions  innumerable  articles  to  satisfy  his  desire  for 
warmth  and  rest  and  other  aids  to  the  comforts  of  life. 

Birds  yield  eggs  for  food  and  feathers  for  warmth  and 
adornment.  Fishes  are  chiefly  valuable  as  a  food  product, 
but  they  also  yield  oil ;  and  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  larger 


ANIMAL  CLASSIFICATION  7 

species,  fish  skin  can  be  transformed  into  very  serviceable 
leather.  The  utility  of  any  beast,  bird,  or  fish  is  not  always 
obvious  ;  in  one  part  of  the  world  it  may  be  of  vital  impor- 
tance to  mankind,  in  another  its  value  may  lie  altogether 
in  a  different  direction.  The  harvest  of  the  North  Sea — the 
cod,  plaice,  herring,  &c. — is  destined  chiefly  for  the  markets 
of  our  great  industrial  centres ;  but  on  the  west  coast  of 
Ireland,  where  the  population  is  sparse,  the  farmer  catches 
fish,  which  he  spreads  upon  his  fields  to  rot  and  thus 
nourish  his  land  with  cheap  manure. 

When  a  traveller  is  about  to  venture  into  a  far-off  and 
unknown  country,  he  first  studies  all  the  available  maps  and 
charts  constructed  by  those  who  have  gone  before  him.  We 
are  about  to  penetrate  into  a  large  portion  of  the  animal 
world  on  a  voyage  of  inquiry  into  at  least  some  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  animal  life,  and  it  behoves  us  to  set  about  our 
task  upon  some  recognised  method  most  likely  to  assist  our 
progress.  We  shall  find  that  the  great  naturalists  of  past 
ages  devised  a  scheme  of  animal  classification  which,  with 
ever  increasing  knowledge,  has  developed  into  roads, 
smoothed  of  almost  all  difficulties  for  the  student  who  is 
prepared  to  exert  only  ordinary  care  to  keep  on  the  right 
path.  Everywhere  are  erected  finger-posts  to  direct  us  to 
that  knowledge  of  which  we  are  in  search — knowledge  that 
will  instruct  and  amuse,  that  will  cause  us  to  take  additional 
interest  in  the  animals  that  serve  us — knowledge  that  will 
fill  us  with  admiration  for  the  wisdom  of  God,  and  that 
cannot  but  call  for  our  tribute  of  adoration  to  Him  who 
'hath  done  all  things  well.' 

It  is  calculated  that  over  two  million  species  of  living 
creatures  exist  in  this  world  of  ours.  Between  the  elephant 
and  the  whale,  the  giants  of  the  animal  creation,  and  the 
cheese  mite,  only  just  discernible  with  the  human  eye,  there 
are  myriads  of  creatures  differing  in  size,  form,  and  habit ; 
and  the  mite  is  by  no  means  the  most  minute  of  beings. 
Yet,  however  large  or  however  tiny  it  may  be,  the  exist- 
ence of  each  living  creature  is  part  of  God's  beneficent 
plan  ;  great  and  small  alike  are  set  to  run  their  course  by 
Him  who  seeth  all  and  maketh  all. 

Often  when   we   are    meeting   with    no   success   in   our 


8  INTRODUCTION 

search  for  some  lost  article  we  declare  that  our  task  is 
like  looking  for  a  needle  in  a  haystack.  In  dealing  with 
the  multitudinous  animal  forms,  if  left  entirely  to  our 
own  devices,  we  should  speedily  be  in  a  state  of  absolute 
bewilderment.  The  number  alone  would  fill  us  with 
doubts  concerning  our  ability  to  count  them ;  and  their 
astounding  variety  would  convince  us  of  the  impossibility 
of  sorting  them  out  so  as  to  obtain  even  an  elementary 
grasp  of  our  subject.  Fortunately,  the  pleasant  paths 
constructed  for  us  by  the  naturalists  are  open  to  all.  If 
we  keep  a  sharp  look-out  for  the  finger-posts  and  the 
milestones  we  shall  have  a  pleasant  journey,  and  arrive 
at  our  destination  with  a  load  of  valuable  information, 
which  it  has  been  a  pleasure  to  gather,  and  which  it  will 
be  a  happiness  to  store  up  in  our  minds. 

For  a  brief  space  we  will  survey  the  great  globe  upon 
which  we  have  our  being.  It  consists  of  quite  fifty 
million  square  miles  of  land  and  nearly  three  times  that 
expanse  of  water.  Yet  by  a  knowledge  of  geography  we 
can  fix  the  position  of  a  tiny  village,  even  though  it  be 
in  some  almost  inaccessible  spot  in  the  heart  of  a  savage 
country.  The  navigator,  by  the  use  of  his  charts  and 
the  compass  and  sextant,  can  determine  the  position  of 
his  vessel,  when  sailing  the  trackless  ocean,  with  greater 
ease  than  a  Londoner  can  sometimes  find  his  way  in 
the  maze  of  streets  in  his  own  city. 

In  the  world  at  large  are  two  great  divisions,  the  Eastern 
and  the  Western  Hemispheres.  In  one  of  these  are  four 
continents,  and  in  the  other  only  one.  Continents  are 
divided  into  countries,  which  are  again  divided  into  states 
and  provinces,  and  in  the  case  of  our  own  land  into  still 
smaller  portions  called  counties.  Counties  in  their  turn 
are  made  up  of  parishes,  villages,  and  towns. 

Before  setting  out  upon  our  journey  into  the  ways 
and  byways  of  the  animal  world  we  must  take  a  bird's-eye 
view  of  it,  the  better  to  observe  our  bearings.  If  we 
exercise  a  little  care  we  shall  be  able  to  note  its  divisions 
and  subdivisions — the  classes,  orders,  sub-orders,  sections, 
groups,  and  families — a  knowledge  of  which  will  afford 
us  invaluable  assistance  on  our  way. 


VERTEBRATES  AND  INVERTEBRATES   9 

All  animal  life  falls  into  two  great  divisions  :  the  Verte- 
brate and  the  Invertebrate. 

The  Vertebrate  Animals  (Animalia  Vertebrata)  form  the 
first  sub-kingdom  of  the  animal  world.  They  are  easily 
distinguished  by  the  possession  of  an  internal  skeleton, 
or  bony  framework.  Their  body  consists  of  a  head,  trunk, 
and  limbs.  The  head  is  composed  of  the  skull,  which 
incloses  and  protects  the  brain  ;  and  the  face,  in  which 
are  the  organs  of  taste,  smell,  sight,  and  hearing.  The 
head  rests  upon,  or  is  attached  to,  the  vertebral  column, 
which  is  built  of  a  number  of  separate  bony  rings,  movable 
one  upon  another,  and  forming  a  canal  for  the  spinal  cord, 
which  is  the  great  nerve  centre  of  the  body.  A  man  has 
twenty-six  separate  bones  in  his  vertebral  column,  while  a 
python  has  no  less  than  four  hundred.  The  limbs,  which 
never  exceed  four,  are  in  pairs.  The  blood  of  the  verte- 
brates is  warm  and  red ;  all,  with  the  exception  of  fishes, 
breathe  air  through  lungs  ;  and  all  of  them  possess  a  heart. 

The  Invertebrate  Animals  include  all  beings  of  lower 
organisation.  They  possess  neither  cranium  nor  brain, 
no  internal  skeleton,  and  no  spinal  cord.  With  the 
exception  of  the  earthworm  their  blood  is  colourless  and 
cold.  Not  a  single  invertebrate  uses  the  mouth  in  re- 
spiration ;  they  breathe  through  holes  or  slits  in  the  neck, 
sides,  and  even  the  tail.  The  jaws  move  horizontally 
instead  of  vertically.  No  vertebrate  has  more  than  four 
true  limbs,  but  invertebrates  seldom  possess  so  few.  All 
insects  have  six ;  the  spider,  which  is  not  an  insect,  has 
eight ;  crabs  and  lobsters  have  ten.  Many  insects  are 
fitted  with  wings  in  addition.  Scientific  men  do  not 
always  agree  exactly  how  to  classify  some  of  the  Inver- 
tebrates, if  only  because  they  include  the  insects,  which 
in  variety  of  structure  and  appearance,  and  still  more  so 
in  the  numbers  of  their  individuals,  far  surpass  all  the 
larger  branches  of  the  animal  world. 

All  animal  life  can  be  arranged  in  two  great  groups  :  the 
warm-blooded  and  the  cold-blooded.  Man,  the  four-footed 
beasts,  and  birds  fall  into  the  first  group  ;  snakes,  frogs, 
fishes,  &c.,  are  contained  in  the  second.  It  is  customary, 
however,  to  divide  the  Vertebrates  as  set  out  overleaf. 


io  INTRODUCTION 


VERTEBRATE   ANIMALS 

The    Vertebrate   animals    are   usually   arranged    in    five 
classes  : — 

I.  Mammalia  (Latin    mamma,  a   teat).      Animals   which 
suckle  their  young,  bringing   them  into  the   world  alive. 
Examples :  Man,  monkey,  ox,  elephant,  and  whale. 

II.  Aves  (Latin,  avis,  a  bird).     Birds  are  oviparous  ;  they 
are  produced  from  eggs  by  the  application  of  heat,  usually 
supplied  by  the  body  of  the  mother  bird  in  close  contact 
with  them.     The  covering  of  mammals  varies  very  consider- 
ably, but  birds  are  always  clothed  with  feathers,  which  are 
a  part  of  their  special  construction  for  flight.     Examples  : 
Eagle,  swan,  ostrich,  and  lark. 

III.  Reptilia  (Latin,  repo,  'I  creep').     Reptiles  are  cold- 
blooded animals,  protected  by  scales  and  not  infrequently 
by   hard    bony   plates.     They   are   mostly   oviparous,   but 
developed  from  the  eggs  more  or  less  casually  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun.     They  can  endure  long  periods  of  abstinence, 
and  are  so  tenacious  of  life  that  many  of  them  will  survive 
the  severest  bodily  injuries.     '  Reptile'  is  not  an  apt  name, 
for  there  are  many  members  of  the  class  that  do  not  creep. 
Examples  :  Crocodile,  lizard,  tortoise,  and  snake. 

IV.  Batrachia  (Greek,   batrochos,  a  frog),  or  Amphibia 
(Greek,   amphibios,  having   a  double    life).      In   this   class 
were  once  included  the  reptiles  and  certain  fishes,  and  the 
latter  term  is  still  popularly  used  to  denote  animals  that  can 
exist  for  a  considerable  time  on  dry  land  or  in  water.     They 
are  oviparous,  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  from  eggs, 
covered  with  a  soft  glutinous  membrane,  which  the  mother 
has  laid  in  the  water.     In  the  early  period  of  their  existence 
they  are  fishlike  in  their  structure,  breathing  by  means  of 
gills   and   a  two-chambered  heart ;    in  the  later  stages  of 
their  development  they  acquire  lungs  and  a  heart  of  three 
chambers.     A  true  amphibian  possesses  at  once  both  lungs 
and  gills.     Examples  :  Frog,  toad,  and  newt. 

V.  Pisces  (Latin,  piscis,  a  fish).      Fishes  are   oviparous. 
Their   bodies   are   covered    with    scales,   which    form    an 
important  part  of  their  special  organisation  for  life  in  the 


THE  CLASS  MAMMALIA  u 

water.  They  possess  a  branchial  respiration  in  which  their 
gills,  acting  as  lungs,  are  enabled  to  extract  air  from  the 
water  instead  of  from  the  atmosphere. 

For  the  present  we  are  only  concerned  with  the  first  of 
the  foregoing  classes.  In  the  Mammalia  are  all  the  animals 
whose  organisation  is  most  developed,  whose  senses  are  the 
most  delicate,  whose  intelligence  is  the  most  perfect,  and 
which  are  most  closely  allied  to  mankind.  They  claim  more 
of  our  attention,  not  only  because  they  include  man  himself, 
but  also  the  whole  of  the  animal  creation  that  is  more 
essential  to  his  immediate  welfare.  Let  us  for  a  moment 
try  to  imagine  what  our  life  would  be  if  all  the  members  of 
the  class  Mammalia  were  rigidly  excluded.  Wool,  hair,  and 
fur  would  form  no  part  of  our  clothing ;  our  animal  food 
would  be  restricted  to  the  flesh  of  birds  and  fishes ;  we 
should  need  a  substitute  for  leather  or  give  up  wearing 
boots  and  shoes ;  we  should  dispense  with  all  articles  that 
are  made  of  bone  ;  and  we  should  banish  our  friend  the 
dog  and  cease  to  make  use  of  any  beast  of  burden. 

Having  decided  which  is  the  particular  realm  of  the 
animal  kingdom  we  desire  to  explore,  we  again  consult  our 
charts  to  ascertain  what  are  the  furthermost  limits  within 
which  our  exploration  will  be  confined. 

In  dealing  with  the  class  Mammalia  (and  it  is  the  same  in 
the  other  classes),  we  find  that  it  contains  groups  of  animals 
in  possession  of  some  similarities  in  form  and  structure,  and 
conversely  exhibiting  common  dissimilarities  from  other 
groups.  The  mind  almost  involuntarily  draws  together  to 
form  a  section  all  those  animals  which  have  a  mutual 
resemblance  to  each  other  in  some  certain  prominent 
characteristics. 

Each  order  consists  of  an  associated  group,  the  units  in 
which  have  certain  essential  points  in  common.  Neverthe- 
less, in  each  order  there  occur  numerous  distinct,  perhaps 
almost  trifling,  points  of  difference  which  enable  us  to 
separate  the  members  of  the  order  into  sub-orders,  with  a 
further  division  into  sections  and  groups,  and  finally  into 
families,  each  possessing  their  own  distinctive  character- 
istics. 


12  INTRODUCTION 

TABLE  OF  THE  ORDERS  OF  THE  CLASS 
MAMMALIA 

I.— Primates  (Latin,  primus,  first). 
SUB-ORDER  i. 

Bimana    (Latin,    bis,   twice ;    manus,    a    hand),    two- 
handed  animals.     Example  :  Man. 
SUB-ORDER  2. 

Quadrumana  (Latin,  quatuor,  four  ;    manus,  a  hand), 

four-handed  animals.     Example :  the  Monkey. 
II. — Chiroptera  (Greek,  cheir,  a  hand  ;  pteron,  a  wing), 

hand-winged  animals.     Example  :  the  Bat. 
III. — Insect! vora( Latin,  insecta,  insects  ;  voro, 1 1  devour'), 

insect-eaters.     Examples  :  the  Hedgehog  and  Mole. 
IV. — Carnivora   (Latin,   caro,   carnis,   flesh),   flesh-eaters. 

Examples:   Lion,  Tiger,  Fox,  and  Weasel. 
V. — Rodentia  (Latin,  rodere,  to  gnaw),  gnawing  animals. 

Examples:   Rat,  Rabbit,  and  Beaver. 
VI. — TTngulata  (Latin,  ungula,  nail,  claw,  or  hoof),  hoofed 

animals. 
SUB-ORDER  i. 

Hyracoidea  (Greek,  hyrax,  shrew-mouse).     Example  : 

Syrian  Hyrax. 
SUB-ORDER  2. 

Proboscidea    (Latin    from    the    Greek    proboskis,    an 
elephant's    trunk ;     literally    a    front-feeder),     pro- 
boscis-bearers.    Example :  Elephant. 
SUB-ORDER  3. 

Perissodactyla   (Greek,  perisos,   superfluous  ;   daktulos, 
finger  or  toe),  odd-toed  animals.    Examples:  Tapir, 
Rhinoceros,  Horse,  Ass,  and  Zebra. 
SUB-ORDER  4. 
Artiodactyla  (Greek,  artios,  equal  ;  daktulos,  finger  or 

toe),  equal-toed  animals. 
Group  i. 

Pecora  (Latin,  plural  of  pecus,  cattle)  or  Ruminantia 
(Latin,  rumen,  a  paunch),  ruminating  or  cud- 
chewing  animals.  Examples:  Ox,  Sheep,  Goat, 
Antelope,  Deer,  and  Giraffe. 


FINGER-POSTS  AND   MILESTONES  13 

Group  2. 

Tragulina  (Greek,  tragos,  goat),  or   Deerlets.      Ex- 
ample :  Kanchil. 
Group  3. 

Tylopada  (Greek,  tylos,  a  knob  or  swelling,  and  pous, 
podos,  a  foot),  Ruminants  with  digits  encased  in 
cutaneous  pads.     Example:  Camel. 
Group  4. 

Suina   (Latin,   SMS,  a  pig),  swine-like  animals.     Ex- 
amples: Swine,  Peccary,  and  Hippopotamus. 
VII. — Sirenia    (Latin,    siren,    a    sea    nymph),   Sea-cows. 

Examples:   Manatee  and  Dugong. 
VIII. — Getacea   (Greek,   ketos,   a   whale),  animals  of  the 

Whale  kind.     Examples:  Whale  and  Dolphin. 
IX. — Edentata    (Latin,     edentatus,    toothless),     toothless 
animals.     Examples:    Sloth,    Ant-eater  and   Arma- 
dillo. 
X. — Marsupialia  (Latin,  marsupium,  a  pouch),  pouched 

animals.     Examples:  Kangaroo  and  Opossum. 
XI. — Monotremata  (Greek,  monos,  single  ;  trema,  a  hole), 
animals   whose   excretions    are   discharged    by   one 
orifice,  as  in  birds.     Example :    Duckbill. 

It  may  appear  strange  that  even  a  recently  discovered 
animal  is  promptly  supplied  with  a  Latin  name.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  Latin  and  Greek  are  the  two  tongues 
common  to  the  scientific  men  of  all  civilised  nations,  and 
whatever  may  be  the  common  name  of  an  animal  in  any 
particular  country,  its  scientific  title  remains  unchanged. 
In  most  cases,  too,  the  name  is  a  key  to  some  characteristic 
possessed  by  the  animal. 

Let  us  for  a  moment  consider  a  typical  instance  of  the 
finger-posts  and  milestones  referred  to  in  an  earlier  page. 
Take  the  Brown  Bear  for  example.  Its  full  postal  address 
in  Nature  is: 

Sub-kingdom,  Vertebrata.  Class,  Mammalia.  Order, 
Carnivora.  Division,  Plantigrada  (Sole-of-the-foot  walkers). 
Family,  Ursidce  (Bears).  Species,  Ursus  arctos. 

The  address  of  the  White  Bear  only  differs  in  the  last 
particular,  viz.,  Ursus  maritimus.  Thus,  just  as  we  can  fix 


i4  INTRODUCTION 

the  residence  of  a  person  by  naming  the  continent,  country, 
county,  town,  parish,  and  street,  so  we  can  definitely  ascribe 
any  particular  animal  to  its  exact  place  in  the  world  of 
nature. 

Although  we  propose  to  visit  only  what  we  may  term 
the  aristocracy  of  the  animal  world,  we  find  that  it  will 
necessitate  our  travelling  into  every  corner  of  the  globe. 
In  our  own  country  we  leave  the  city  and  the  mart  and  all 
the  pageantry  of  artificial  life,  and  wend  our  way  into  the 
green  fields,  follow  the  river's  flowery  banks,  and  enter  the 
shade  of  the  tangled  wood.  We  cross  the  oceans  and 
explore  the  continents ;  we  traverse  vast  fertile  plains  and 
parched  deserts ;  we  plunge  into  primeval  forests ;  and  we 
climb  stupendous  mountains.  Wherever  the  human  foot 
and  human  perseverance  can  force  a  way  we  shall  find  the 
animal  world  at  home,  to  give  us  varying  receptions  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  with  which  the  creatures  are  endowed. 

Incidentally  in  our  wanderings  we  shall  learn  much  that 
is  perhaps  outside  the  immediate  scope  of  natural  history, 
for  many  animals  touch  at  vital  points  the  lives  of  the 
people  among  whom  they  dwell.  We  shall,  too,  often 
stray  from  the  beaten  tracks  of  civilisation,  and  enter  into 
immense  solitudes  where  the  explorer  and  the  hunter  have 
only  occasionally  penetrated.  Nevertheless,  we  shall  never 
be  in  doubt  concerning  our  course — even  there  the  finger- 
posts and  milestones  of  the  naturalists  will  unfailingly  direct 
our  steps. 

If  it  were  not  for  this  assurance  as  we  stand  upon  the 
threshold  of  our  task  we  should  be  weighed  down  by  the 
mere  contemplation  of  the  immensity  and  the  variety  of 
the  mighty  creation  amid  which  we  live,  and  of  which  we, 
ourselves,  were  the  Creator's  supreme  effort.  But  every 
step  in  our  well-regulated  inquiry  will  but  increase  our 
wonder  at  the  vista  of  extreme  interest  opened  up  to  us ; 
every  new  fact  which  we  glean  will  prove  but  one  more 
testimony  of  God's  power  upon  earth,  and  proof  of  the 
riches  and  treasures  of  His  love  and  goodness  to  all 
mankind. 


Chapter  II 

ORDER  I.— PRIMATES 

SUB-ORDER  I.— BIMANA  (MAN) 


Man,  the   most  perfect   of  all  created  beings 

-  Man's    attitude    and    strength  —  Reasoning 
faculties  atone  for  natural  physical  deficiencies 

-The  bony  skeleton  —  Vertebral  column  — 
Muscles — Brain  and  nerves  —  Circulation  of 
the  blood — Digestion  —  Teeth  —  Respiration— 
The  distribution  of  man — The  Caucasian  or 
White  family— The  Negro  family— The  Mon- 
golian family — Varieties  of  the  Yellow  Race 

-  Man    the    dominating    force    in    the    world 
— Labour's  magic  wand — The  curse  mitigated. 


Plate  II. 


5.  Mandrill 


CHAPTER   II 

Order  I.— Primates 

Sub-Order  i.— BIMANA  (MAN) 

THIS  sub-order  consists  of  only  one  section,  that 
section  of  but  one  group,  and  that  group  of  but 
one  family — MAN. 

'  And  God  said,  Let  us  make  man  in  our  own  image,  after 
our  own  likeness.'  '  So  God  created  man  in  His  own 
image,  in  the  image  of  God  created  He  him  ;  male  and 
female  created  He  them.' 

Of  all  the  wonderful  works  of  God  man  was  the  last 
and  the  most  excellent.  In  physical  attributes  alone  he 
is  the  most  perfect  of  all  created  beings ;  and  still  more 
is  this  the  case  in  the  refined,  the  exalted  plan  and  model 
upon  which  he  is  constructed.  In  size  he  is  dwarfed  by 
numerous  animals ;  in  strength  he  is  no  match  for  some 
that  do  not  attain  his  proportions.  He  is  short-sighted 
compared  to  the  eagle  ;  deaf  compared  to  the  hare ;  and 
almost  without  the  sense  of  smell  compared  to  the  wild 
dog  or  the  vulture,  who  perceives  the  faintest  scent  borne 
to  it  upon  the  breeze. 

But  in  man  the  senses  are  so  nicely  balanced  and 
accurately  adjusted  as  to  enable  him  to  obtain  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  properties  of  the  world  around  him, 
in  a  manner  that  will  contribute  to  his  pleasure,  and  at  the 
same  time  ensure  his  elevation  and  happiness.  The  colours 
of  earth  and  sea  and  sky  gladden  his  eye  ;  melody  enchants 
his  ear  ;  the  sweet  odours  of  flowers  delight  his  nostrils ; 
the  fruits  of  summer  please  his  palate  ;  the  glorious  sun 

3  I7 


i8  MAN 

and  the  spangled  canopy  of  heaven  entrance  him — and 
all  lead  him  to  the  contemplation  of  the  Deity,  of  whose 
wondrous  scheme  he  is  himself  the  corner-stone. 

In   addition   to   all   these  physical   powers  he  possesses 
the  gift  of  language,  by  which  to  denote  his  wants  and 


SKELETON  OF  MAN,   WALKING  ATTITUDE. 

desires  and  to  express  the  most  abstract  ideas  of  his 
complex  mind.  Man  alone  is  a  reasoning  animal ;  man 
alone  possesses  an  immortal  soul. 

Man's  very  attitude  is  indicative  of  his  physical  superiority 
and  at  once  proclaims  his  dignity,  and  his  separation  from 
all  other  creatures  over  whom  he  was  given  the  dominion. 


MAN'S  SUPERIORITY  19 

He  sustains  himself  on  his  feet,  thus  giving  free  play  to 
his  hands.  The  pelvis,  the  great  bones  at  the  bottom  of 
the  trunk,  rest  securely  in  ball  and  socket  joints  upon  the 
stout  pillars  of  the  legs,  giving  enormous  strength  to  the 
frame  when  in  a  vertical  position.  A  practised  man  can 
carry  upon  his  shoulders  a  weight  of  several  hundred 
pounds,  whereas  a  horse  can  carry  with  comfort  not 
more  than  a  hundred  pounds ;  and  it  is  a  good  camel 
that  can  carry  a  quarter  of  a  ton  for  any  considerable 
distance.  The  strength  of  the  horse  lies  in  the  direction 
of  its  own  axis,  which  is  horizontal,  and  consequently  it 
can  draw  far  more  than  it  can  carry.  Upon  rails  one 
animal  has  been  known  to  draw  a  distance  of  several  miles 
a  weight  exceeding  fifty  tons,  which  would  be  absolutely 
immovable  against  the  united  strength  of  several  men. 

The  human  hand  is  situated  so  as  to  render  it  easily  avail- 
able as  an  instrument  of  observation.  Strong  and  powerful, 
it  is  nevertheless  exquisitely  sus- 
ceptible of  the  most  delicate  impres- 
sions. Every  finger,  except  the  ring 
finger,  is  capable  of  independent 
movement,  a  power  which  is  pos- 
sessed by  no  other  animal  ;  the 
thumb  is  so  elongated  that  it  readily 
meets  the  tips  of  one  or  all  of  the 
fingers,  and  the  fingers  themselves, 
and  especially  their  extremities, 
possess  a  discriminating  sensibility 
which  is  peculiar  to  man. 

That   he   is   naked,    and   that   his  THE  HUMAN  HAND. 

physical    construction    affords    him 

no  effective  weapons  of  offence  or  defence,  detract  no 
whit  from  his  superiority  over  the  brute  creation,  since 
the  very  deficiency  does  but  cause  him  to  summon  aid 
from  his  internal  resources,  his  fertile  mind,  his  reasoning 
faculties.  He  clothes  himself  ;  he  constructs  dwellings 
to  protect  himself  from  the  weather  and  to  defy  the  inroads 
of  ferocious  animals  ;  his  knowledge  of  the  forces  of  nature 
enables  him  to  construct  weapons  that  drive  to  a  distance 
or  exterminate  the  intractable  ;  the  more  docile  he  subdues 


20 


MAN 


and  forces  into  his  service.  Thus  art  supplies  to  man  what 
nature  has  withheld,  and  with  the  rude  materials  to  his 
hand  even  the  uncivilised  hunter  of  the  forest  holds  sway 
over  the  animals  that  make  their  home  in  its  leafy  recesses. 

A  whole  volume  could  be  occupied  in  but  a  cursory 
examination  of  the  structure  and  composition  of  the  human 
body,  and  still  more  the  mechanism  of  its  vital  organs. 
For  anything  beyond  the  most  brief  description  the  reader 
must  look  to  works  on  anatomy  and  physiology  rather  than 
a  popular  outline  of  Natural  History. 

But  bones  and  flesh  and  blood  and  nerves  and  other 
structures  are  common  to  all  the  mammals.  What  applies 
to  one  is  more  or  less  applicable  to  all  ;  and  the  constant 
references  to  the  construction  of  animals,  and  especially 
the  points  of  difference  between  one  species  and  another, 
will  enable  us  to  proceed  on  our  course  with  ever-growing, 
definite  knowledge  of  our  subject. 

It  is  the  bony  skeleton  that  determines  the  shape  of  man 
or  beast  and  provides  a  strong,  firm  and  solid  support  for 
the  softer,  fleshy  parts.  In  the  case  of  man  there  are  more 
than  two  hundred  bones,  each  distinct  in  shape  and  size. 
Many  of  them  form  hinge,  ball  and  socket  and  pivot  joints 
to  allow  the  human  machine  smooth  and  easy  movement. 

Vertebral    Column. — We    frequently   speak   of    the   back- 
bone, which  is  misleading  in  that  it  is  a  string  of  many 
bones,  thirty-three   in   a   child   and 
twenty-six  in  an  adult. 

Each  bone  is  a  vertebra  ;  the  so- 
called  backbone  is  the  vertebral 
column.  The  seven  smallest  verte- 
brae form  the  neck,  which  supports 
the  head ;  the  twelve  succeeding 
ones  support  the  twelve  pairs  of 
ribs.  Five  bones,  increasingly  large 
and  solid,  form  the  vertebrae  of  the 
loins ;  the  remaining  nine  bones 
become  welded  together  as  the 
child  advances  into  adult  life  :  five 
of  them  form  one  piece,  called  the  sacrum,  and  the  four 
final  bones  form  a  kind  of  rudimentary  tail,  called  the  coccyx. 


A   VERTEBRA. 
S.C.  Spinal  cord. 


MUSCLE,   BRAIN,  AND  NERVES  21 

Although  every  bone  in  the  body  serves  some  special  pur- 
pose, persons  are  frequently  bereft  of  limbs  by  accident, 
and  even  some  of  the  bones  of  the  head  and  trunk,  because 
disease  demands  their  sacrifice.  But  if  their  loss  incon- 
venience life  it  does  not  destroy  it,  nor  even  of  necessity 
shorten  it.  The  removal  of  the  smallest  bone  of  the 
vertebral  column,  however,  entails  certain  death,  the 
advance  of  which  all  the  medical  skill  in  the  world  is 
powerless  to  check. 

Muscles. — The  bones  of  the  body  are  clothed  with 
flesh.  The  red  lean  flesh  is  muscle.  A  mass  of  red  flesh 
really  consists  of  bundles  of  tissues  capable  of  moving 
or  sliding  about.  These  movable  bundles  are  the  muscles, 
terminating  in  tough,  leather-like  cords,  called  tendons, 
which  bind  the  muscle  to  the  bone — an  elastic  binding 
which  allows  at  will  the  freest  extension  and  contraction  of 
the  bones  thus  jointed  together.  Wherever  is  required  the 
greatest  power  of  movement,  there  are  the  largest  and 
strongest  muscles.  Compare  the  mass  of  flesh  around  the 
thigh,  the  calf,  and  the  arms  with  the  thin  covering  of  the 
skull ;  but  the  bones  of  the  skull  do  not  move  and  thus  have 
no  need  of  muscle. 

Brain  and  Nerves. — The  skull  is  a  hollow,  bony  box 
containing  the  brain,  which  consists  of  a  white  delicate 
material  very  different  from  the  solid  flesh  of  the  muscles. 
The  cavity  of  the  skull  is  not  only  filled  up  with  this  sub- 
stance, but  it  extends  in  a  narrow,  rod-like  mass  right  down 
the  tunnel  or  canal  formed  by  the  hollow  ring  of  each 
vertebral  bone.  Running  out  from  the  brain  into  the  head 
and  from  the  spinal  cord  into  the  body  are  delicate  white 
threads  that  divide  into  innumerable  branches  and  so  spread 
throughout  the  flesh.  These  are  the  nerves,  the  telegraph 
wires  of  the  body.  It  is  the  brain  and  nerves  that  enable 
us  to  see,  hear,  smell,  taste,  and  touch.  Upon  the  brain 
depend  our  will,  intellect,  and  memory,  our  affections  and 
every  emotion  of  which  the  human  mind  is  capable.  The 
telegraphic  nature  of  the  nerves  is  easy  of  illustration.  If 
in  the  darkness  one  step  upon  some  slippery  substance,  in 
a  flash  the  nerves  communicate  the  presence  of  danger  to 
the  brain  ;  and  with  equal  celerity  the  brain  calls  upon  the 


22 


MAN 


muscles  to  flex  the  bones  of  the  legs  into  a  position  best  to 
maintain  or  regain  the  equilibrium  of  the  body. 

Circulation  of  the  Blood. — We  have  seen  that  practi- 
cally every  part  of  the  body  is  crowded  with  nerves  connected 
with  the  brain  ;  it  is  equally  crowded  with  blood-vessels 
connected  with  the  heart.  Space  will  not  allow  a  detailed 
examination  of  the  composition  of  blood,  but  it  is  easy 

to  recognise 
its  impor- 
tance. Sup- 
pose one 
were  to 
bind  an  arm 
very  tightly 
near  the 
shoulder, 
the  result 
would 
speedily  be 
discernible. 
Below  the 
bandage  the 
flesh  would 
grow  cold, 
feeling 
would  be 
blunted, 
and  move- 
ment of  the 
arm  would 

become 

heavy     and 

clumsy.  If  the  ligament  were  sufficiently  tight  and  sus- 
tained long  enough,  the  arm  would  become  dead  and 
useless.  Why  ?  Not  because  we  have  deprived  the  arm 
of  its  blood,  for  its  vessels  might  be  full  to  bursting  ; 
but  because  we  have  interfered  with  its  circulation.  The 
heart  is  a  pump,  which  forces  the  life-giving  fluid  through 
its  greatest  artery,  the  aorta,  which  branches  out  again 
and  again  into  ever  smaller  arteries,  until  the  tubes  are 


DISSECTION   OF    LEFT    SIDE   OF    HEART   OF   MAN, 
SHOWING  VALVES. 

L.V.  Left  Ventricle;    L.A.  Left  Auricle;    m.v.   Mitral  Valve; 

p.a.  Pulmonary  Artery  ;    s.v.  Semilunar  Valves  of  Pulmonary 

Artery;   ao.  Aorta;  s.v'.  Semilunar  Valves  of  Aorta. 


BLOOD-MAKING 


as  fine  as  a  hair,  and  in  consequence  are  called  capillaries. 
The  blood  returns  to  the  heart,  not  by  the  way  it  came, 
but  by  wholly  different  vessels  called  veins.  The  blood 
renews  the  tissues  of  the  body,  which  even  the  simplest 
acts  of  our  daily  life  wear  and  destroy,  which  is  the 
reason  we  are  tired  after  great  exertion — and  the  weari- 
ness lasts  until  we  have  rested  and  given  the  blood  an 
opportunity  of  repairing  the  damage. 

Digestion. — The  process  of  digestion  is  really  blood- 
making.  Food  is  taken  into  the  mouth,  where  it  under- 
goes not  only  the  process  of  mastication,  or  chewing,  but 
something  else  of  the  utmost  importance.  The  saliva, 
which  pours  out  from  the  membrane  of  the  mouth, 
converts  the  insoluble 
starch  contained  in  so 
much  of  our  food  into 
sugar,  which  is  a  soluble 
substance,  and  is  easily 
absorbed  and  dissolved  in 
the  blood.  In  the  stomach 
the  food  is  ground  and 
churned  up  with  a  fluid 
called  the  gastric  juice. 
Unlike  the  saliva,  this  fluid 
will  not  act  upon  starches, 
but  it  will  dissolve  lean  meat 
and  the  glutinous  parts  of 
bread  and  other  substances.  Fats  and  the  oily  parts  of 
our  food  are  unchanged  even  after  their  passage  through 
the  mouth  and  stomach.  It  is  not  until  the  partly  digested 
mass  reaches  a  long  tube,  called  the  intestine,  that  the 
liver  supplies  another  fluid,  called  the  bile,  to  extract  the 
remaining  nourishment.  The  stomach  constantly  gives  up 
to  the  blood-vessels  all  around  the  food  which  it  has  fully 
dissolved  ;  and  as  the  remainder  passes  along  the  intestinal 
canal  all  that  is  of  value  is  finally  absorbed  into  the  blood, 
leaving  the  waste,  the  useless  undigested  material,  to  be 
expelled  from  the  body. 

Teeth. — Intimately  connected  with  the  process  of  diges- 
tion are  the  teeth,  the  arrangement  of  which  is  highly  im- 


THE   HUMAN  STOMACH. 

Pylorus,  the  '  gateway '  into  the 
Duodenum,  or  first  intestine. 


24  MAN 

portant,  as  they  form  a  capital  standard  of  comparison 
among  the  mammalia  generally.  The  skull  incloses  and 
protects  the  brain  ;  but  it  also  bears  the  jaws,  without  which 
it  would  be  impossible  to  swallow  the  food  preparatory  to 
digestion.  Each  of  the  jaws  is  fitted  with  teeth,  which  are 
so  arranged  that  the  surfaces  of  those  in  the  upper  jaw 
correspond  with  those  in  the  lower.  The  top  or  crown  of 
the  tooth  is  capped  with  enamel,  the  hardest  substance  in 
the  body. 

Teeth  are  of  three  kinds,  viz.,  the  incisors  or  cutting  teeth, 
canines  or  dog  teeth,  and  premolars  and  molars  or  grinding 
teeth.  During  life  man  has  two  sets  of  teeth  ;  the  first, 
called  milk  teeth,  are  twenty  in  number  ;  they  fall  out 
during  childhood,  being  replaced  by  the  permanent  teeth 
to  serve  throughout  the  duration  of  life.  The  permanent 
teeth  are  larger  and  stronger  than  the  milk  teeth  and  there 
are  thirty-two  of  them  instead  of  twenty.  An  adult  man 
has  two  incisors,  one  canine,  two  premolars  and  three 
molars  on  each  side  of  the  jaw,  top  and  bottom. 

Respiration. — Terrestrial  creatures  breathe  air ;  fishes, 
too,  breathe  air,  which  is  dissolved  in  the  water.  The 
arterial  blood  pumped  through  the  aorta  is  as  pure  in 
quality  as  it  is  bright  scarlet  in  colour.  In  its  passage 
through  the  body  it  parts  with  its  life-giving  qualities  and 
takes  up  the  impurities  given  off  by  the  worn-out  tissues ; 
and  when  it  returns  by  way  of  the  veins  it  is  a  dark  purple 
poisonous  mixture,  not  only  useless,  but  a  positive  danger 
to  the  body.  It  is  chiefly  loaded  with  poisonous  carbonic 
acid  gas,  of  which  the  venous  blood  must  be  cleansed 
before  it  can  again  be  put  into  circulation.  The  heart  has 
four  chambers,  each  guarded  by  a  valve.  Pure  blood  passes 
out  of  the  left  ventricle  and  venous  blood  returns  into  the 
right  auricle.  By  way  of  the  pulmonary  artery  the  right 
ventricle  sends  the  impure  fluid  to  the  lungs  for  purifi- 
cation. 

By  means  of  the  nostrils  and  the  mouth  we  take  in 
fresh  pure  air,  of  which  about  22  per  cent,  is  oxygen, 
which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  sustain  life.  At  the  back 
of  the  mouth  and  the  nasal  passages  is  the  windpipe,  or 
trachea,  which  passes  into  the  thorax,  or  chest,  where  it 


PURIFYING  THE  BLOOD 


RIGHT 


divides  into  two  pipes,  each  called  a  bronchus,  and  each 
passing  into  a  lung.  In  the  lung  the  bronchus  divides  and 
subdivides  into  the  bronchial  tubes,  finally  becoming  very 
tiny  air  cells.  This  accounts  for  the  lungs  being  soft  and 
spongy  and  extremely  elastic.  Actual  examination  is  far 
better  than  any  mere  verbal  description,  and  as  what  the 
butcher  calls  sheep's  lights  are  but  the  lungs  of  the  animal, 

one  need  not   go      

far  for  an  actual 
speci  men.  I  n 
passing  it  may  be 
pointed  out  that 
the  body  of  a 
dead  rabbit  will 
provide  numerous 
illustrations  con- 
cerning bones, 
joints,  muscle, 
nerves,  &c.  The 
incoming  breath 
fills  the  air  cells 
of  the  lungs  with 
oxygen,  which  the 
venous  blood  ex- 
changes for  its 
poisonous  car- 
bonic acid,  which 
is  expelled  from 
the  body  in  the 
outgoing  breath. 
And  then  the 
purified  blood  is 

conveyed  by  the  pulmonary  veins  into  the  left  auricle  of 
the  heart,  ready  to  be  sent  again  circling  through  the  body. 
Numerous  organs  of  the  body  have  not  even  been 
mentioned,  let  alone  described.  This  mere  rapid  survey 
of  but  a  few  of  its  wonders  must  suffice  to  allow  us  to 
dwell  upon  man's  place  in  the  general  scheme  of  creation, 
rather  than  to  examine  more  closely  into  his  structural  and 
functional  excellences. 


DIAGRAM   OF  THE   CIRCULATION  OF   THE 
BLOOD. 


26  MAN 

No  profitable  purpose  connected  with  our  immediate 
task  would  be  served  by  endeavouring  to  trace  the  exact 
manner  in  which  mankind,  descended  from  a  common 
parent,  has  spread  itself  over  every  portion  of  the  globe 
and  ramified  into  a  thousand  tongues  and  nations.  The 
very  distribution  of  man  is  but  one  more  convincing  proof 
of  his  superiority  over  the  beasts  of  the  field.  The  inferior 
animals,  notwithstanding,  in  many  cases,  marked  powers 
of  locomotion,  are  constrained  to  occupy  particular  regions 
owing  to  their  physical  structure,  their  covering,  and  the 
limitations  of  their  natural  diet.  Man  is  not  restricted  to 
any  particular  environment,  since  he  can  clothe  himself  in 
accordance  with  varying  temperatures,  and  he  can  find 
food  of  some  kind  wherever  he  may  take  up  his  abode. 
Thus  in  mountain  and  valley,  forest  and  desert,  anywhere 
between  the  burning  regions  of  the  Torrid  zone,  and  the 
ice-girt  shores  of  the  Polar  seas,  we  find  man  modifying 
his  food  according  to  the  locality.  Upon  the  heated 
plains  of  India  he  thrives  upon  rice,  the  plantain,  and 
the  palm  ;  on  the  frozen  snows  of  Greenland  he  feasts 
upon  the  raw  flesh  and  blubber  of  the  seal — and  between 
these  points  there  are  innumerable  grades  and  distinctions 
in  habits,  manners,  and  fo,od,  in  civilisation  and  moral 
qualities. 

Notwithstanding  the  number  of  tribes  into  which 
humanity  is  divided,  presenting  distinct  differences  in 
stature,  tint  and  feature,  the  few  great  races  of  mankind 
possess  their  own  special  and  unmistakable  characteristics. 

The  population  of  the  entire  globe  is  approximately 
1,700,000,000  and  consists  of  three  main  types,  the  Caucasian, 
the  Negro,  and  the  Mongolian. 

The  Caucasian,  Indo-European,  or  White  family  includes 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  people  of  Europe,  Arabia,  Persia, 
Afghanistan,  and  Hindostan  ;  the  Jews,  wherever  they  are 
found  ;  and  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  Northern  Africa. 
The  chief  characteristics  are  a  white  or  fair  skin,  which  is 
naturally  swarthy  in  the  warmer  regions,  a  large  skull,  an 
expanded  forehead,  an  oval  face,  and  long  wavy  hair.  That 
the  Hindoo  should  be  classed  with  the  Briton  may  appear 
strange  upon  the  face  of  it ;  but  though  he  varies  in  colour 


GREAT  RACES  OF  MANKIND 


27 


from  almost  pure  white  to  jet  black,  in  all  other  respects 
he  closely  resembles  the  white  man. 


RED  INDIAN. 
NEGRO. 


CAUCASIAN. 


MONGOLIAN. 
MALAY. 


The  White  races,  those  of  Western  Europe  in  particular, 
have  wrought  the  most  marked  changes  in  the  distribution 


28  MAN 

of  man.  There  is  no  corner  of  the  world  that  they  do  not 
ransack  for  food  and  raw  materials  for  their  manufactures, 
or  in  search  of  markets  for  their  varied  wares ;  and  north, 
south,  east,  and  west  they  have  seized  and  peopled  vast 
regions  to  which  originally  the  white  man  was  a  stranger. 
Thus  there  are  now  120,000,000  of  English-speaking  people, 
two-thirds  of  whom  are  thousands  of  miles  away  from 
"that  little  stone  set  in  the  silver  sea"  which  is  the  real 
home  of  the  Briton. 

The  Negro  family  has  its  home  in  Central  and  South 
Africa  and  some  portions  of  Polynesia.  A  black  skin, 
narrow  skull,  low  forehead,  thick  lips,  and  woolly  hair  are 
distinctive  features  that  never  leave  room  for  doubt  con- 
cerning the  negro's  identity.  There  are  millions  of  him 
in  the  West  Indies  and  the  United  States,  but  he  would 
never  have  got  there  of  his  own  initiative ;  he  was  too 
apathetic,  too  ignorant,  to  provide  the  means  of  traversing 
thousands  of  miles  of  ocean.  He  was  conveyed  there  by 
the  dominating,  cosmopolitan  white  man,  that  he  might 
till  the  new  lands  which  the  Western  nations  of  Europe 
had  seized  to  themselves  in  the  New  World. 

The  Mongolian  family  occupies  North,  Central,  and 
Eastern  Asia.  The  chief  characteristics  are  a  skin  of  a 
yellow  tinge  ;  the  skull  oblong,  with  a  receding  forehead  ; 
cheek  bones  prominent  and  the  nose  short  and  broad ; 
very  closely-set  narrow  eyes ;  and  long,  straight,  black 
hair.  The  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Tartars  are  the  chief 
members  of  the  family  ;  but  the  Eskimos,  Lapps,  Finns, 
the  Magyars  of  Hungary,  and  the  Turks  are  of  the  same 
stock. 

The  Malays  and  many  of  the  Polynesians  and  the  Red 
Indians  are  not  separate  types ;  they  are  but  varieties  of 
the  Yellow  race.  They  possess  almost  exactly  the  same 
distinctive  features,  except  that  the  Malay  has  a  dark  brown 
tawny  skin,  while  the  Indian  has  a  coppery  complexion 
that  has  earned  for  him  the  name  of  red  man. 

It  is  man  who  is  the  dominant  force  in  the  world,  for 
whom  the  Creator  provided  the  wonders  of  earth  and  sea 
and  sky,  at  whose  disposal  was  placed  every  good  thing 
which  the  wisdom  of  God  conceived  could  minister  to 


LABOUR'S   MAGIC  WAND  29 

his  legitimate  desires.  In  the  very  beginning  man  fell 
from  his  high  estate  and  the  ground  was  cursed  in  punish- 
ment ;  but  man's  labour  escaped  the  Divine  wrath  and 
afforded  him  the  means  to  render  the  curse  less  operative. 

Since  God  looked  upon  the  earth  and  declared  that  it 
was  good,  its  physical  aspect  has  undergone  enormous 
changes  by  the  slow  and  sometimes  violent  upheavals  of 
volcanic  forces  and  the  ceaseless  wear  and  tear  of  the 
elements.  But  these  changes  bulk  small  in  comparison 
with  the  transformation  which  man,  and  especially  the 
white  man,  has  achieved  by  his  labour.  We  have  but  to 
contemplate  our  own  land  in  illustration  of  the  point. 
It  is  less  than  two  thousand  years  ago  since  Britain  first 
saw  the  light  of  civilisation,  when  Julius  Caesar  crossed 
over  from  Gaul  to  add  the  island  to  the  Roman  dominions. 
The  land  was  covered  with  almost  impenetrable  forest, 
where  the  ancient  Briton  built  his  wattled  hut,  or  dug  a 
less  pretentious  retreat  in  the  ground,  in  which  to  rest  his 
woad-stained  skin-clad  limbs  when  wearied  from  the  chase. 

And  now  ?  Through  the  centuries  '  clamorous  Labour 
has  knocked  with  its  hundred  hands  at  the  golden  gate  of 
the  morning ' ;  and  the  call  has  been  answered  with  ever- 
growing energy.  Labour  has  waved  its  magic  wand  over 
the  toiling  hordes.  Forthwith  forests  have  been  cleared 
to  give  way  to  tracts  smiling  with  golden  harvests  ;  from 
the  depths  of  the  earth  have  been  wrested  her  precious 
stores ;  furnaces  blaze,  forges  glow,  anvils  ring,  and 
machinery  whirs  and  whirls.  From  the  rude  settlements 
of  the  barbarian  have  sprung  cities  alive  with  the  interests 
of  commerce,  science,  and  art.  On  road  and  river,  railway 
and  canal,  are  conveyed  to  our  doors  the  necessaries  and 
the  luxuries  of  life.  From  the  busy  quays  vessels  traffic 
to  and  fro  over  the  waste  of  waters,  in  search  of  materials 
to  shape  and  mould  and  weave  to  meet  our  own  needs  and 
for  barter  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  '  Civilisation  smiles  ; 
Liberty  is  glad;  Humanity  rejoices;  Piety  exults' — for 
everywhere  in  the  mighty  camps  of  men,  as  in  the  tiniest 
hamlets  nestling  under  lonely  hills,  arise  the  temples  of 
Religion,  wherein  is  worshipped  the  Father  of  all. 

But  though  man's  labour  has  mitigated  the  curse,  only 


30  MAN 

the  blood  of  Christ  can  wipe  out  the  stain.  To-day  only 
about  a  quarter  of  the  human  race  even  professedly  bow 
the  knee  to  the  Captain  of  our  Salvation ;  and  not  until 
the  Gospel  is  on  every  tongue,  and  still  more  in  every  heart, 
will  man  rise  to  that  high  pinnacle  above  the  brute  creation 
whereon  in  the  very  beginning  God  placed  him. 


Chapter  III 


ORDER    I.— PRIMATES    (continued) 

SUB-ORDER    2.— QUADRUMANA,    OR    THE 
MONKEY  TRIBE 


The  Quadrumana  or  four-handed  animals- 
Man  and  the  Monkey  from  an  anatomical 
point  of  view — Monkey  Speech — The  Origin 
of  Species— The  Anthropoidea— The  Catar- 
rhine  Monkeys :  Family  Simiidae :  Gorilla 

—  Chimpanzee  --  Orang-Outan  —  Gibbons  - 
Siamang  —  Family     Cercopithecidse  :     Genus 
Cercopithecus  :     Green     Monkey  —  Pig-tailed 
Macaque — Barbary     Ape — Wanderoo — Yellow 
Baboon  —  Chacma — Thoth— Mandrill  —  Diana 
Monkey — White-nosed   Monkey — Mangabey — 
Patas   or   Red   Monkey — Genus    Semnopithe- 
cus  :    Hanuman   Monkey — Proboscis    Monkey 

—  Platyrrhine    Monkeys  :     Spider    Monkey  — 
Coaita  —  Red     Howler  —  Capuchin    Monkey — 
Saki — Hand-drinker —  Dourocouli  —  Marmoset 
— Lion  Tamarin— Lemuroidea  :  Ruffled  Lemur 
— Ring-tailed    Lemur — Brown    Mouse   Lemur 

—  Slender      Loris  —  Slow      Loris  —  Galago  — 
Tarsier — Aye-Aye — Dermoptera  :   Colugo. 


I.     GALAGO. 

(See  page  73) 

(Photo  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


2.     YOUNG   ORANG-OUTAN. 
(.See  page  49) 


PLATE  II. 


i.     PIG-TAILED   MACAQUE. 

(See  page  54) 


2.     PATAS    MONKEY. 

(See  page  62) 


(Photos  W.  S.  Ber ridge,  F.Z.S. 


CHAPTER   III 

Order  I. — Primates  (continued] 

Sub-Order  2.— QUADRUMANA,   OR  THE 
MONKEY   TRIBE 

IT  is  not  always  an  easy  matter  to  allocate  an  animal 
to  its  exact  place  in  the  classification  of  the  Mammalia, 
but  there  can  be  no  c  ifficulty  in  distinguishing  any  member 
of  the  monkey  tribt .  If  an  examination  of  the  great  toe 
of  the  hind  foot  sh  >w  that  it  is  opposite  to  the  other  toes, 
thus  converting  it  into  a  hand,  it  is  proof  positive  that  the 
animal  is  a  monkey  of  some  kind.  With  the  exception  of 
a  few  species  the  fore  limbs  also  possess  an  opposable 
thumb.  It  is  thi  peculiarity  that  earns  for  the  animals  the 
scientific  name  QUADRUMANA,  i.e.t  four-handed. 

Because  the  monkey  of  all  living  creatures  is  the  most 
like  man  it  is  placed  in  the  front  rank  of  the  animal  creation. 
A  glance  at  Coloured  Plate  I.  shows  that  the  resemblance  is 
more  apparent  than  real ;  the  highest  of  the  monkey  tribe 
are  but  the  most  grotesque  caricatures  of  humanity. 

But  if  we  examine  the  monkey  from  an  anatomical  point 
of  view  we  find  that  it  very  closely  resembles  man  in  many 
important  particulars.  In  a  previous  chapter  we  noted  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  human  skeleton,  with 
which  it  is  interesting  to  compare  the  frame  of  the  gorilla 
in  a  walking  attitude.  Very  often  such  comparison  is 
misleading,  since  the  ape  is  depicted  in  an  upright 
attitude,  a  position  that  it  adopts  only  with  difficulty. 

Ignoring  the  tail,  the  animal  possesses  only  a  few  more 
bones  than  a  man.  The  teeth,  though  usually  the  same  in 

4  33 


34  THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 

number  as  in  mankind,  are  less  regular.  There  is  a  marked 
difference  in  the  relative  length  of  the  limb  bones,  but 
upon  the  whole  the  proportions  of  its  parts  are  very  much 
the  same  as  in  the  human  being.  Nevertheless,  there  are 
anatomical  differences  so  marked  as  to  form  an  absolute 


SKELETON   OF    GORILLA,   WALKING  ATTITUDE. 

gulf  between  even  the  lowest  and  most  degraded  of  the 
human  race  and  the  highest  of  the  manlike  apes. 

How  dissimilar  are  the  hands  of  man  from  his  feet !  The 
latter  are  to  stand  upon  and  not  to  take  hold  of  objects 
with.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  however,  that  the  human  foot 
under  the  pressure  of  necessity  makes  a  very  serviceable 


MAN  AND  MONKEY  COMPARED     35 

hand.     The  foot  of  a  baby  is  remarkably  prehensile,  and 
would  become  increasingly  so  but  for  the  wearing  of  shoes, 
and  the  foot  of  the  savage  is  always 
more  mobile  than  that   of   the   civi- 
lised man.     In   some  cases  where  a 
person  has  been  born  without,  or  by 
accident  deprived  of,   his  arms,  the 
feet    have    been    made   use    of    with 
wonderful  ability.     Instances  are  on 
record  where  armless  men  have  with 
their  feet  wielded    pencil    or    brush 
with    such   skill   as   to   carry  off   no 
inconsiderable    prizes    in    the    world          THE  HUMAN  FOOT. 
of  art. 

The  hind  extremities  of  the  monkey  are  indeed  hands 
that  serve  it  well  in  its  arboreal  existence,  but  as  feet 
they  only  permit  it  to  adopt  an  erect  position  with 
awkwardness,  if  not  discomfort.  They  are  so  formed  that 
the  animal  cannot  stand  squarely  upon  the  soles  ;  the  weight 
is  thrown  upon  the  sides  of  the  feet  and  the  knees  are 
always  partially  bent. 

The  most  manlike  apes  frequently  walk  short  distances  in 
an  upright  posture,  but  their  progression  is  always  ungainly, 
and  necessitates  the  use  of  outstretched  arms  with  which  to 
balance  themselves.  There  is  little  doubt  that  the  most 
highly  trained  monkey  in  captivity  adopts  the  biped  method 
of  locomotion  with  certainly  not  more  success  than  a  dog. 
Numerous  mammals,  notably  the  bear,  frequently  rear 
themselves  upon  their  hind  feet  in  search  of  food  or  to  take 
a  more  extended  view  of  their  surroundings  ;  but  if  alarmed 
they  immediately  drop  on  all  fours  in  order  to  attain  the 
speed  necessary  to  escape  the  threatened  danger.  In  this 
respect  the  monkey  is  no  whit  better  than  any  of  the  less 
pretentious  quadrupeds. 

The  fore  extremities  lack  the  salient  qualities  of  the 
human  hand  quite  as  much  as  the  hind  ones  fall  short 
of  those  of  the  human  foot.  There  are  several  families  of 
monkeys  in  which  the  thumb  is  practically  non-existent ; 
but  the  freest  and  most  opposable  monkey  thumb  cannot 
make  the  animal's  hand  anything  but  a  mockery  of  its 


36  THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 

human  prototype.  Even  if  the  most  generous  consideration 
be  extended  to  the  monkey,  it  cannot  be  admitted  that 
it  possesses  a  true  hand — it  is  nothing  better  than  a  mis- 
chievous, artful,  thieving  paw.  The  human  hand  is  not 
only  a  marvel  of  mechanism,  but  it  possesses  an  intellectual 
power,  an  individuality,  in  close  association  with  the  active 
brain  and  the  glorious  soul  of  its  human  owner. 

Old-time   travellers   brought   home   wonderful   accounts 
of  'men  with  long  tails  and  covered  with  yellowish  hair 

navigating  the 
ocean  in  boats 
and  bartering  par- 
rots in  exchange 
for  iron/  Such 
stories  nowadays 
would  not  obtain 
credence  outside  a 
nursery. 

It  was  an  idea, 
not  always  re- 
stricted to  savages, 
that  monkeys  are 
capable  of  speech, 
but  refrain  from 
its  expression  lest 
they  should  be 
compelled  to 
labour.  Professor 
FOOT  AND  HAND  OF  A  MONKEY.  Garner  in  recent 

years  has  attempted 

to  learn  the  speech  of  monkeys.  Inclosing  himself  in  a 
cage  in  the  heart  of  an  African  forest,  by  means  of  the 
phonograph  he  took  careful  records  of  the  sounds  emitted 
by  the  animals  around  him.  In  common  with  almost  all 
animals,  monkeys  give  vent  to  varying  cries  to  express 
pleasure,  pain,  and  other  emotions ;  but  the  reduction  of 
monkey  sounds  into  any  orderly  system  of  recognisable 
speech  must  be  written  down  as  a  complete  failure. 

Linnaeus  imagined  that  it  was  possible  to  find  a  homo 
troglodytes  (literally  '  a  man  dweller  in  the  caves ')  only  a 


THE  DARWINIAN  THEORY  37 

little  lower  than  himself  and  capable  of  progressive  improve- 
ment. Possibly  this  was  an  incipient  notion  of  the  theory 
with  which  Charles  Darwin,  a  famous  naturalist,  disturbed 
the  scientific  world  half  a  century  ago.  In  a  noted  book, 
The  Origin  of  Species,  he  attempted  to  explain  how  all 
existing  species  may  have  descended  from  one  or  at  least 
very  few  low  forms  of  life.  Heated  controversies  were 
excited  which  have  not  yet  been  laid  to  rest,  resulting  in 
considerable  changes  in  classification  in  zoology  and 
biology. 

Any  discussion  of  the  vexed  question  of  evolution  would 
be  out  of  place  in  the  present  work,  but  one  or  two 
interesting  points  may  be  noted.  It  is  not  claimed,  as  is 
often  popularly  supposed,  that  man  is  descended  from  the 
monkey.  A  man  would  not  say  that  he  is  descended 
from  his  cousins,  since  both  he  and  his  cousins  are  the 
descendants  of  their  ancestors. 

When,  in  teaching  it  to  walk,  a  child  is  first  held  to  the 
ground,  only  the  outer  portions  of  its  feet  rest  upon  the 
surface.  The  soles  are  rather  opposed  to  each  other  ;  in 
fact,  the  child  adopts  the  bough-grasping  attitude.  The 
forehands  of  many  monkeys  are  merely  grasping  hooks 
in  which  the  thumb,  or  the  apology  for  it,  is  not  called 
into  play.  Young  children  show  a  habitual  disuse  of  the 
thumb,  and  whether  employed  or  not  the  hand  is  usually 
held  in  a  grasping  position.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that 
an  infant  under  an  hour  old  will  support  its  own  weight 
by  its  hands  for  at  least  thirty  seconds,  and  a  child  of 
three  weeks  old  has  supported  itself  for  quite  two  and  a 
half  minutes. 

Civilised  beings  may  not  be  flattered  at  the  suggestion 
that  they  originally  sprang  from  the  same  stock  as  the 
monkey,  but  there  are  types  of  the  human  family  who,  in 
their  personal  characteristics,  apart  from  their  physical 
structure,  are  but  little  removed  from  the  four-handed  beast. 
In  any  case  it  is  impossible  to  establish  any  regular  ascend- 
ing series  from  the  lower  monkeys  to  man,  the  highest 
animal  type.  The  Orang  appears  to  come  very  close  to 
man  in  that  it  possesses  even  a  beard,  but  its  chin  is  less 
like  man  than  is  the  Siamang's.  The  Orang's  backbone  in 


38  THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 

its  lower  region  is  formed  closely  after  the  human  pattern, 
but  its  teeth  are  less  human  than  are  those  of  the  tarsier  of 
Celebes,  while  its  nose  and  brain  are  less  perfect  than  those 
of  the  gibbons. 

Monkeys  are  too  numerous  in  species  for  anything 
approaching  complete  enumeration.  In  the  accompanying 
plates  are  figured  representatives  of  many  of  the  principal 
families,  and  our  remarks  will  be  largely  confined  to  those 
thus  presented  to  the  eye.  The  reader  will  be  better 
enabled  to  discriminate  between  man,  made  in  the  likeness 
of  his  Maker,  a  moral  agent  and  a  reasoning  soul,  and 
the  most  highly  developed  ape,  whose  intelligence  ranks 
below  that  of  the  faithful  dog.  We  shall  give  not  a  mere 
description  of  the  various  members  of  the  monkey  tribe,  but 
also  remark  upon  their  instincts,  their  varied  dispositions 
and  different  degrees  of  intelligence,  together  with  some 
consideration  of  their  economic  value  to  mankind. 

This  plan  will  be  adopted  throughout  our  review  of  the 
Mammalia,  so  as  to  bring  vividly  before  the  eye  and  the 
mind  that  there  is  nothing  more  wonderful  in  all  the  world 
than  an  organised  body  possessed  of  life,  motion,  sensation, 
and  thought.  We  shall  find  that  the  divine  Artist  with 
unerring  precision  has  endowed  each  animal  with  just  the 
qualities  best  fitted  to  its  needs.  It  is  not  only  the  heavens 
that  ' declare  the  glory  of  God/  not  only  the  firmament  that 
'sheweth  His  handy  work.'  Throughout  the  phenomena  of 
animal  life  from  man  downwards  to  the  meanest  reptile  or 
insect  that  creeps  upon  the  earth,  God's  infinite  wisdom  is 
unfailingly  displayed. 


SECTION  L—ANTHROPOIDEA. 

In  this  section  are  all  the  animals  which  resemble  man 
(Greek,  anthropos,  man).  Strictly  the  term  monkey,  as  used 
by  the  specialists,  includes  only  one  group  of  the  great 
Simian  family  ;  but  the  popular  use  includes  apes,  baboons, 
and  lemurs,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  last  named,  as 
well  as  the  marmosets,  are  provided  with  claws  instead  of 
flat  nails. 


THE  ANTHROPOID  APES 


In  Group  I.,  the  CATARRHINI,  are  all  the  apes  and  monkeys 
of  the  Old  World.  The  group  possesses  certain  charac- 
teristics that  cannot 
be  mistaken.  In 
a  few  cases  the 
thumb  of  the  fore 
limbs  is  absent,  but 
whenever  it  is  pre- 
sent it  is  opposable; 
the  nostrils  are 
placed  close  to  each 
other,  and  the  tail, 
if  the  animal  possess 
one,  is  never  prehen- 
sile. 

FAMILY 


A   CATARRHIXE    MONKEY. 


The  family 
Simiidae(Latin,s/w/a, 
'  an  ape,'  from  Greek 
simos,  l  flat  -  nosed, 
snub  -  nosed  '),  or 
Anthropoid  apes, 

more  closely  resemble  man  than  any  other  branches  of 
the  Quadrumana.  In  the  family  are  only  the  gorilla,  the 
chimpanzee,  the  orang-outan  and  the  gibbons.  All  four  are 
arboreal  in  habit,  and  consequently  the  old  name  troglodytes 
(cave-dwellers)  was  never  really  applicable  to  them. 


GORILLA  (Gorilla  savagei). 
Coloured  Plate  I.  Fig.  3. 

The  Gorilla,  the  largest  and  strongest  of  the  Anthropoid 
apes,  has  its  home  only  in  the  hottest  parts  of  West  Africa, 
particularly  in  the  damp,  shady  forests  between  the  Congo 
and  the  Niger.  In  all  probability  the  whole  area  of  its 
habitat  does  not  exceed  a  thousand  square  miles.  The 


40  THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 

animal  was  so  named  by  Hanno,  a  Carthaginian 
explorer,  who  visited  tropical  West  Africa  about  350  B.C. 
Upon  his  return  home  he  brought  with  him  three  stuffed 
specimens.  It  is,  however,  extremely  doubtful  whether  the 
explorer  penetrated  sufficiently  far  southwards  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  Gorilla ;  it  is  far  more  likely  that  his 
captures  were  only  large  baboons. 

The  animal  was  not  really  known  to  Europeans  until 
1847,  when  Professor  Richard  Owen  procured  a  skull  from 
Dr.  Savage,  an  American  missionary  on  the  Gabun  river. 
In  1852  large  numbers  of  the  apes  migrated  to  the  coast, 
probably  owing  to  some  unusual,  and  never  repeated, 
failure  in  their  food  supply,  and  several  were  killed  and 
despatched  to  Europe  and  America.  The  next  year,  at 
the  Royal  Institution,  Professor  Owen  rather  startled  his 
audience  by  the  information  he  afforded  concerning  the 
manners  and  personal  peculiarities  of  the  Gorilla,  which 
promptly  caused  the  animal  to  be  placed  in  a  new  genus, 
based  chiefly  upon  the  marked  difference  in  the  sizes  of  the 
male  and  female,  the  protruding  canine  teeth,  and  the 
prominent  cranial  ridges  above  the  eyes. 

In  1861  Du  Chaillu,  the  French  traveller,  described  the 
Gorilla  in  fuller  detail ;  and  though  at  the  time  his  account 
was  considered  to  be  largely  romance,  later  knowledge  has 
in  the  main  only  proved  his  correctness.  The  male  not 
infrequently  exceeds  six  feet  in  height,  and  averages  five 
and  a  half  feet,  which  is  beyond  the  mean  height  of  man  ; 
the  female  is  smaller. 

A  full  grown  Gorilla  is  a  formidable  creature.  A  glance 
at  the  skeleton  will  show  the  capabilities  of  special  muscular 
power  in  the  limbs  and  jaws.  The  shoulders  are  extra- 
ordinarily massive,  to  which  is  joined  the  bullet  head  by 
scarcely  a  vestige  of  neck.  The  great  brawny  arms  extend 
nearly  to  the  knee  when  the  animal  is  upright ;  the  hands 
are  very  broad  ;  the  fingers  are  short  and  thick,  and  are 
united  by  webs  almost  to  the  first  joint.  The  middle  finger 
is  often  quite  six  inches  in  circumference.  The  foot  v/ith 
its  great  toe,  set  out  at  an  angle  of  about  60  degrees,  is  not 
unlike  a  giant  hand  of  immense  power  and  grasp.  It  is 
turned  in  but  little,  and  is  better  fitted  for  walking  on  the 


THE  GORILLA 


ground  than  is  the  case  with  the  majority  of  quadrumanous 
animals. 

The  skin  is  an  intense  black  and  covered  for  the  most 
part  with  short,  coarse,  dark  grey  hair,  which  is  whitish  at 
the  tips.  That  on  the  face  and  head  is  reddish-brown  in 
colour,  and  there  is  a  distinct  beard,  or  rather  a  ruff,  under 
the  chin.  In  old  age  all  Gorillas  are  grizzled.  The  skin  of 
the  face  is  black  even  to  the  lips  and  is  hideously  wrinkled. 
The  ears  are  comparatively  small.  The  eyes,  grey  and 
deeply  sunken,  sparkle  malignantly  below  an  overhanging 


ANKLE  AND  FOOT  BONES 
OF  GORILLA. 


ANKLE  AND  FOOT  BONES 
OF  MAN. 


bony  frontal  ridge  that  gives  to  the  features  a  fixed  scowling 
expression.  The  mouth  is  wide,  and  the  slight  lips,  drawn 
up,  reveal  the  powerful  jaws,  from  which  the  huge  canine 
tusk-like  teeth  project,  to  give  to  the  general  appearance  a 
final  touch  of  ferocity.  The  canine  teeth  are  separated 
from  the  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw  by  a  space. 

Notwithstanding  their  great  size,  Gorillas  spend  most  of 
their  time  in  trees,  about  which  they  spring  and  leap  with 
unexpected  agility.  On  the  ground  they  usually  walk  on  all 
fours,  always  doubling  up  the  fingers  of  the  hands  and 


THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 


resting  their  weight  upon  the  knuckles.  They  wander  about 
in  family  parties,  which  generally  consist  of  the  two  parents 
and  their  offspring  of  varying  ages.  They  do  not  move  about 
at  night.  It  is  said  that  the  female  plaits  the  branches  of 
a  tree-top  into  a  platform,  upon  which  are  placed  sticks 
and  leaves  and  moss,  where  the  mother  and  her  young 
can  sleep  in  comfort.  The  male  sleeps  at  the  foot  of  the 
tree,  ready  to  guard  his  family  from  the  attacks  of  leopards, 
which  are  the  only  animals  the  great  ape  really  need 
fear  in  his  forest  home. 

The  Gorilla  is  a  fairly  strict  vegetarian,  restricting  itself 
chiefly  to  tender  palm  shoots,  paw-paws,  bananas,  various 
plum-like  fruits  and  nuts  ;  to  crack  hard  shells  a  stone  is 
requisitioned.  Upon  occasion  it  does  not  disdain  honey, 
insects,  and  birds'  eggs.  Though  some  travellers  assert  that 
it  eats  flesh,  there  is  no  proof  that  it  ever  kills  other  animals 
in  order  to  obtain  it. 

The  great  uncertainty  that  long  existed  concerning  the 
Gorilla  was  chiefly  due  to  its  shyness ;  it  is  but  rarely  seen 
even  by  the  stealthy  natives.  When  surprised  it  screams 
with  fright  and  attempts  to  make  its  escape.  Should  it  be 

wounded  or  hampered  in 
its  flighf  it  instantly  shows 
fight.  Balancing  itself  by 
swinging  its  arms,  the 
barking  voice  changes 
into  a  terrific  roar  from 
the  deep  cavernous  breast 
as  it  waddles  to  meet  the 
foe  face  to  face.  It  uses 
its  gigantic  arms  as 
weapons  of  offence,  and 
one  blow  of  the  huge  paw 
will  break  the  breast-bone 
or  crush  the  skull,  or  lay 
bare  the  entrails  of  the 

poor  hunter.  At  close  quarters  it  will  adopt  the  tactics  of 
the  bear,  hugging  its  foe  as  it  tears  with  its  great  teeth. 
Should  the  hunter  miss  fire,  it  is  said  the  animal  will 
rush  in  and  snap  the  barrel  in  two  between  its  powerful 


SKULL  OF  THE  GORILLA. 


THE  GORILLA  43 

jaws,  which  probably  may  only  be  true  of  the  cheap 
weapons  which  are  specially  manufactured  for  supply  to 
the  natives.  It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  afford  actual 
evidence  of  men  being  killed  by  this  gigantic  ape  ;  but 
the  fact  that  with  its  powerful  hands  and  teeth  it  is  a 
match  for  the  leopard  in  open  combat  is  quite  sufficient 
proof  of  its  courage  and  fighting  capabilities. 

It  is  very  certain  that  the  Gorilla  is  held  in  wholesome 
dread  by  the  negro  inhabitants.  They  tell  fabulous  tales 
of  it  carrying  away  men  and  women  into  the  forests ; 
and  that  from  the  trees  it  will  hang  down  to  seize  and 
strangle  passing  travellers.  When  the  Gorilla  dies  its 
friends  bury  it  under  a  heap  of  loose  leaves  ;  and  should 
Gorillas  kill  a  negro  they  will  give  him  the  same  rude 
burial. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  animal  is  still  limited ;  a  live 
one  was  not  brought  to  Europe  until  1876.  It  is  im- 
possible to  tame  an  adult,  and  the  few  young  ones  that 
have  been  brought  to  various  zoological  collections  have 
always  fallen  victims  to  lung  disease  within  eighteen 
months. 

Probably  even  additional  familiarity  with  the  habits  of 
the  Gorilla  will  not  cause  him  to  rise  greatly  in  our  estima- 
tion. Even  the  natives  call  him  'The  Stupid  Old  Man/ 
He  is  particularly  fond  of  sugar-canes,  and  occasionally 
raids  the  plantations  in  the  settled  districts.  He  attempts 
to  take  in  his  arms  both  cut  and  uncut  canes,  and  when  the 
strongly  rooted  dainty  defeats  his  purpose  he  is  unable 
to  account  for  it,  flies  into  a  rage,  and  goes  away  empty- 
handed.  He  lives  in  a  rainy  region,  and  though  he  practically 
builds  a  house,  he  has  not  the  wit  to  add  a  roof.  If  the 
animal  should  happen  upon  a  fire  which  the  natives  have 
left  he  will  enjoy  the  warmth  of  it  as  long  as  there  is  a 
spark  left,  but  he  lacks  the  sense  to  feed  the  fire,  though 
boundless  fuel  surrounds  him.  Man-like  the  Gorilla  may  be 
in  some  structural  respects,  but  in  intelligence  he  is  the 
veriest  brute.  From  time  immemorial  the  animals  have 
lived  in  communities  something  like  men,  but  during 
countless  ages  they  have  learnt  nothing;  they  remain  as 
brutish  as  ever  were  their  ancestors. 


44  THE   MONKEY  TRIBE 

CHIMPANZEE  (Anthropopithecus  troglodytes). 
Coloured  Plate  I.  Fig.  4. 

This  animal  has  been  known  to  Europeans  for  hundreds 
of  years,  probably  through  the  medium  of  negroes  and 
wandering  Arabs,  who  often  capture  the  young  apes  to 
keep  as  tame  pets.  One  was  brought  to  London  as  early 
as  the  year  1740. 

The  Chimpanzee  is  found  in  Equatorial  Africa,  but, 
unlike  that  of  the  gorilla,  its  range  is  very  extensive,  stretch- 
ing from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  forest  regions  of  the 
Nile.  Five  feet  is  a  good  height  for  a  full-grown  male  ;  the 
average  is  nearly  a  foot  less ;  and  as  with  most  other  apes, 
there  is  little  difference  in  the  stature  of  the  male  and 
female.  Besides  being  shorter,  it  lacks  the  breadth  and 
general  massiveness  of  the  gorilla.  The  legs  are  com- 
paratively straight,  but  the  calf  is  only  very  slightly 
developed.  Owing  to  less  articulation  of  the  hind 
extremities  the  animal  is  able  to  place  more  of  the  foot 
upon  the  ground  than  the  gorilla.  The  ringers,  like  our 
own,  are  free  as  far  as  the  knuckles. 

The  skin  of  the  Chimpanzee,  a  light  muddy  flesh  colour, 
is  covered  with  coarse  black  hair,  which  is  especially  thick 
on  the  back  and  shoulders,  and  there  are  very  passable 
whiskers  on  the  sides  of  the  cheeks.  The  skin  of  the  face 
is  inclined  to  yellow,  but  it  darkens  with  age. 

The  head  is  large  in  comparison  with  the  body.  It  is 
rounder  than  that  of  the  gorilla  ;  the  ridges  above  the  eyes 
are  less  marked  ;  the  jaws,  though  they  project  very  much, 
are  less  massive  ;  the  canine  teeth  are  less  prominent ;  the 
lips  are  more  mobile  ;  and  the  nose  is  almost  quite  flat. 
Altogether  the  expression  is  one  of  considerable  mildness. 

There  still  remain  several  features  worthy  of  notice.  The 
ears  are  large,  broad  across  the  top,  and  project  almost 
at  right  angles  from  the  face.  The  animal  possesses 
distinct  stiff  and  bristly  eyebrows,  and  the  wrinkled  lids  are 
fringed  with  black  eyelashes.  The  hair  on  the  forehead  is 
parted  with  an  accuracy  almost  suggestive  of  the  services  of 
a  hairdresser.  On  the  upper  arm  the  hair  takes  a  down- 


THE  CHIMPANZEE 


45 


ward  direction,  which  is  the  reverse  of  that  on  the  lower 
arm,  so  that  the  tips  of  the  hairs  meet  at  the  elbow.  When 
it  rains  the  Chimpanzee,  in  common  with  other  apes,  places 
its  hands  on  its  head,  and  the  hairy  arms  thus  form  a  kind 
of  pent  roof  to  shelter  the  face,  the  water  dripping  off  at  the 
elbows. 

Though  its  home  is  in  the  forest  the  Chimpanzee  is 
largely  a  groundling.  It  travels  in  strong  bodies,  chiefly  in 
search  of  the  soft  fruits  which  form  the  main  portion  of 
its  food,  though  it  varies  its  diet  with  honey,  grubs,  and 


SKULL  OF  THE  CHIMPANZEE. 
(One-third  natural  size.) 

birds.  Any  plantain,  banana,  or  corn  plantations  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  a  Chimpanzee  colony  will  be  sure  to 
suffer  from  well  concerted  raids.  It  is  difficult  to  catch 
them  in  their  marauding  excursions,  for  they  are  exceedingly 
watchful  animals,  and  at  the  first  warning  cry  from  those 
on  outpost  duty  they  seek  cover  in  the  deep  recesses  of  the 
bush. 

The  Chimpanzee  is  largely  nocturnal  in  habit.  During 
the  night  the  forest  resounds  with  the  most  hideous  noises, 
probably  a  means  of  keeping  the  band  together  in  the  dark- 


46  THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 

ness,  while  at  the  same  time  the  outcries  scare  possible 
enemies.  It  affects  no  particular  sleeping  place,  except 
when  the  female  is  nursing  her  young,  at  which  times  she 
prepares  a  platform  upon  which  to  secure  some  measure  of 
comfort ;  but  these  nurseries  are  seldom  used  more  than 
two  or  three  nights  in  succession. 

Ignoring  the  usually  exaggerated  stories  of  the  natives, 
there  is  no  doubt  of  the  formidable  nature  of  the  Chim- 
panzee ;  it  tyrannises  over  the  district  which  it  inhabits.  The 
leopard  and  other  members  of  the  cat  tribe  prey  largely  on 
monkeys,  but  the  leopard  often  finds  its  master  in  an  adult 
ape.  The  lion  kills  the  biggest  Chimpanzee  with  ease,  but 
we  learn  on  the  authority  of  Livingstone  that  it  will  not 
eat  the  body. 

Captain  Casati,  the  Italian  traveller,  relates  many  interest- 
ing facts  concerning  the  Chimpanzee  in  the  little  known 
forests  of  the  Aruwimi  and  Albert  Nyanza  regions.  The 
most  expert  hunters  experience  difficulty  in  capturing  the 
cautious  animal.  The  Western  Sandehs  spread  nets,  and 
under  cover  of  darkness  disturb  the  apes  with  loud  cries 
and  the  barking  of  dogs.  The  animals  at  once  make  a 
precipitate  retreat,  only  to  fall  into  the  nets,  in  which  their 
limbs  become  entangled.  The  hunters  even  then  only 
effect  their  purpose  after  the  most  strenuous  and  dangerous 
struggles.  The  most  successful  traps  of  the  Walegga  tribe 
take  the  form  of  big  jars  of  intoxicating  beer,  which  are 
placed  in  the  haunts  of  the  Chimpanzees  at  night.  With 
the  dawn  the  animals  fight  furiously  among  themselves  for 
possession  of  the  jars,  which  the  victors  speedily  empty. 
The  drunkards  eventually  fall  into  a  deep  sleep,  when 
the  artful  natives  come  out  of  hiding  to  tie  the  limbs  of 
their  deluded  prey.  At  Msua,  on  the  shore  of  Albert 
Nyanza,  a  body  of  troops  was  encamped  in  a  dense  wood. 
During  the  night  a  drum  was  taken  from  under  the  nose  of 
a  sentry,  and  the  theft  was  assumed  to  be  the  work  of  a 
daring  native.  During  the  next  day,  upon  the  top  of  a  tall 
tree  an  old  Chimpanzee  was  discovered  vigorously  beating 
the  drum  with  a  stick,  in  imitation  of  the  action  which 
doubtless  he  had  witnessed  the  day  before.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  recover  the  instrument,  but  the  ape  avoided 


THE  CHIMPANZEE  47 

gunshots  and  darts  by  leaping  from  branch  to  branch  until 
he  finally  escaped  with  his  precious  spoil. 

Of  all  the  greater  apes,  the  Chimpanzee  is  the  most 
human  in  appearance  and  intelligence,  and  if  properly 
treated  and  trained  it  exhibits  great  docility.  When  young 
it  is  teachable,  affectionate,  and  playful  to  a  remarkable 
degree,  but  with  age  it  becomes  morose  and  increasingly 
savage. 

As  it  endures  our  climate  better  than  the  other  Anthro- 
poid apes,  the  Chimpanzee  in  captivity  has  given  us  fair 
opportunities  of  observing  some  of  its  characteristic 
habits.  '  Tommy '  was  a  fine  and  nearly  full-grown  animal 
who  met  his  death  in  the  great  fire  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in 
1866.  'Jane,'  an  inmate  of  Sanger's  Menagerie,  was  most 
popular  with  the  spectators,  and  her  keeper  declared  that 
she  could  do  everything  but  talk.  Greediness  is  usually  a 
marked  feature  of  the  monkey  tribe,  but  Jane  would  return 
a  biscuit  or  a  piece  of  cake  if  she  were  not  hungry.  A  new 
set  of  teeth  caused  her  much  inconvenience  and  pain,  and 
one  tooth  had  to  be  removed  to  afford  relief.  The  dental 
operation  was  performed  with  a  piece  of  stick,  and  after- 
wards, whenever  troubled  with  toothache,  Jane  would  select 
a  stout  straw,  break  it  off  to  the  required  length,  and  then 
present  it  to  her  keeper  that  he  might  again  act  as  surgeon 
dentist.  She  eventually  succumbed  to  the  north-east  winds 
and  defective  teething,  the  latter  of  which  is  always  the 
scourge  of  wild  animals  in  captivity. 

All  monkeys  have  an  instinctive  dread  of  cold,  and  the 
Chimpanzee  easily  learns  to  appreciate  the  utility  of  textile 
coverings.  It  will  wear  clothing  with  the  utmost  gravity, 
and  takes  a  positive  delight  in  a  new  garment,  going  to  the 
length  of  destroying  an  old  one  to  prevent  the  possibility  of 
an  exchange  for  the  worse.  So-called  educated  Chimpanzees 
will  wear  the  clothing  of  a  man,  even  to  collar  and  tie,  will 
sit  at  table  to  a  varied  meal,  and  will  lie  in  bed  between 
blankets  and  sheets  with  as  little  restlessness  as  is  exhibited 
by  the  average  child.  These  show  animals,  however,  have 
little  claim  to  real  intelligence.  They  only  go  through  what 
at  best  are  their  tricks  while  under  the  watchful  eye  of  a 
trainer.  The  cleverest  ape  would  no  more  dream  of  using 


48 


THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 


a  knife  and  fork  of  its  own  initiative  when  feeding,  than  a 
caged  lion  would  of  its  own  free  will  amuse  an  audience 
by  leaping  through  blazing  hoops. 

ORANG-OUTAN  (Simla  satyrus). 
Coloured  Plate  I.  Fig.  2. 

The  Orang-outan,  literally  Man  of  the  Woods,  inhabits 
the  lesser  known  parts  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra,  where  it  is 
called  Mias  by  the  natives.  It  attains  a  height  of  upwards 
of  four  feet ;  the  arms  are  long  and  the  legs  short.  A  man's 


SKELETON  OF  THE  ORANG-OUTAN. 


extended  arms  usually  measure  exactly  the  height  of  his 
body  when  erect ;  but  in  the  Orang  they  are  generally  about 
twice  the  measurement  of  its  height ;  and  thus  in  walking 
it  is  far  more  awkward  than  either  the  gorilla  or  the 
chimpanzee. 


THE  ORANG-OUTAN  49 

If  the  Mias  is  compelled  to  traverse  an  unwooded  tract, 
it  places  its  knuckles  upon  the  ground  and  swings  its 
body  through  the  arms  just  as  though  they  were  crutches. 
It  rarely  attempts  to  walk  on  its  hind  legs  alone,  unless  there 
are  branches  overhead  to  which  it  can  cling  for  support. 
Among  the  trees  the  animal  is  just  as  nimble  as  it  is  awk- 
ward when  on  the  ground.  It  can  travel  through  the  tree- 
tops  quite  as  quickly  as  a  person  can  run  beneath  them.  It 
passes  from  branch  to  branch  with  great  rapidity,  and  leaps 
intervening  spaces  with  remarkable  ease  considering  its 
size  and  weight.  It  enjoys  a  peculiar  freedom  of  motion 
owing  to  the  construction  of  its  hip  joint.  In  man  and 
many  animals  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone  is  tied  down  to 
the  socket  by  a  short  and  strong  tendon  (ligamentum  teres), 
which  has  to  be  cut  before  the  cup  and  ball  ends  of  the 
bones  can  be  separated.  The  tendon  adds  strength,  and  is 
a  security  against  easy  dislocation.  But  in  the  Orang  the 
ligament  is  entirely  wanting,  and  its  hind  limbs  can  be 
turned  in  any  direction  with  a  flexibility  and  readiness  that 
easily  makes  it  the  acrobat  of  the  ape  family.  This  remark- 
able suppleness  of  a  large-bodied  animal  is  exhibited  in  a 
marked  degree  in  Plate  I.  Fig.  2. 

Most  monkeys  are  gregarious  and  delight  in  making 
deafening  noises.  The  Orang  does  not  even  form  little 
bands  as  do  the  gorillas,  but  mopes  about  upon  its  platform 
in  marked  contrast  to  the  restlessness  of  the  monkey  tribe 
in  general.  It  does  not  leave  its  bed  until  the  sun  is  well 
up,  and  seldom  returns  to  the  same  tree  even  two  nights 
running.  Fruit,  leaves,  buds,  and  young  shoots  form  its 
food,  and  as  it  usually  obtains  sufficient  water  in  the  hollows 
of  leaves,  the  animal  finds  but  little  necessity  to  come  down 
to  the  ground. 

Young  monkeys  of  all  kinds  cling  to  their  mothers  even 
when  they  are  leaping  from  branch  to  branch.  Mr.  A.  R. 
Wallace,  who  with  Rajah  Brooke  has  afforded  us  our  most 
reliable  knowledge  of  the  Mias,  once  killed  a  female,  which 
was  carrying  a  baby  about  a  foot  in  length.  When  he  went 
to  pick  up  the  little  creature  it  instinctively  grasped  his 
beard  and  could  not  easily  be  made  to  loose  its  hold. 
Eventually  it  transferred  itself  to  a  piece  of  suspended  buffalo 

5 


50  THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 

skin,  which  seemed  to  afford  it  almost  complete  happiness. 
A  French  traveller  relates  something  similar  concerning  a 
little  monkey  which  he  removed  from  its  dead  mother  in 
Dutch  Guiana.  When  it  was  forced  to  release  its  parent  it 
sprang  upon  a  wig  which  was  standing  upon  its  block  near 
at  hand  ;  and  not  until  the  end  of  three  weeks  did  it 
voluntarily  allow  the  peruke  to  be  worn  by  its  owner. 

A  marked  characteristic  of  the  female  Orang  is  its  affec- 
tion for  its  young,  as  exemplified  in  the  following  unpleasant 
incident  that  occurred  when  a  distinguished  scientist  was 
endeavouring  to  procure  a  specimen. 

In  some  trees,  removed  from  the  dense  forest,  a  female 
Orang,  with  a  young  one  in  her  arms,  was  discovered,  and 
the  pursuit  commenced.  In  the  ardour  of  the  moment,  and 
excited  by  the  hope  of  possessing  an  animal  so  rare,  the 
gentleman  forgot  everything  but  the  prize  before  him,  and 
urged  on  his  men  by  the  promise  of  a  reward  should  their 
exertions  be  successful.  The  animal,  encumbered  with  her 
young  one,  made  prodigious  efforts  to  gain  the  dense  and 
intricate  recesses  of  the  wood,  springing  from  tree  to  tree, 
and  endeavouring  by  every  means  to  elude  her  pursuers. 
Several  shots  were  fired  ;  and  at  length  one  took  fatal  effect, 
the  ball  penetrating  the  right  side  of  the  chest. 

Feeling  herself  mortally  wounded,  and  with  the  blood 
gushing  from  her  mouth,  she  from  that  moment  took  no 
care  of  herself,  but  summoned  up  all  her  dying  energies  to 
save  her  young  one.  She  threw  it  onwards  over  the  tops  of 
the  trees  and  from  one  branch  to  another,  taking  the  most 
desperate  leaps  after  it  herself,  and  again  facilitating  its 
progress,  until,  the  intricacy  of  the  forest  being  nearly 
gained,  her  chances  of  success  were  sure.  All  this  time  the 
blood  was  flowing  ;  but  her  efforts  were  unabated.  It  was 
only  when  her  young  one  was  on  the  point  of  attaining  to 
a  place  of  safety  that  she  rested  on  one  of  the  topmost 
branches  of  a  gigantic  tree.  True  to  her  ruling  passion, 
even  in  death,  she  turned  for  a  moment  to  gaze  after  her 
young  one — reeled,  and  pitched  head  foremost  to  the 
ground. 

The  sight  was  so  touching  that  it  called  forth  the 
sympathy  of  the  whole  party.  The  eagerness  of  the  chase 


THE  GIBBONS  51 

subsided;  but  so  deep  an  impression  did  the  maternal 
tenderness  and  unexpected  devotion  of  the  poor  Orang 
make  on  the  leader  of  the  party,  that  he  expressed  the 
utmost  remorse  and  pity,  declaring  that  he  would  not  go 
through  the  same  scene  again  for  all  the  world. 

THE    GIBBONS. 

The  generic  name  '  Hylobates '  is  of  Greek  derivation  ; 
it  signifies  '  Tree-traveller/  and  thus  prepares  us  to  expect 
that  we  are  to  deal  with  very  active  members  of  the 
monkey  race.  They  are  apes,  or  tailless  monkeys,  various 
species  of  which  are  found  in  India,  Burma,  Siam,  Malay 
Peninsula,  and  the  islands  of  Java,  Borneo,  and  Sumatra. 
They  are  very  slender  animals,  rarely  exceeding  three  feet  in 
length,  and  with  arms  that  almost  reach  the  ground  when 
the  animals  stand  erect. 

Three  well-known  species  are  the  White-handed  Gibbon 
(Hylobates  lar),  Coloured  Plate  I.  Fig.  i,  the  Agile  Gibbon 
(Hylobates  agilis),  and  the  Siamang  or  Ungka  Ape  (Hylobates 
syndactylus),  Coloured  Plate  II.  Fig.  4. 

The  Gibbons  vary  in  colour — black,  brown,  grey,  and 
cream  colour — and  some  of  them  have  a  white  band  above 
or  around  the  face.  A  mother  does  not  necessarily  have  an 
infant  the  same  colour  as  herself.  The  feet  and  hands  of 
the  White-handed  Gibbon  are  always  pale  in  colour.  The 
soles  of  the  feet  of  all  the  species  are  applied  more  flatly 
to  the  ground,  but  they  cannot  walk  with  ease  or  rapidity. 
All  of  them  are  shy  and  entirely  arboreal,  appearing  to  pass 
a  life  quite  as  aerial  as  many  birds,  omitting  those  feathered 
creatures  which  are  too  heavy  or  otherwise  restricted  from 
flying. 

Owing  to  the  construction  of  the  feet  and  the  length 
of  the  arms,  these  apes  are  able  to  spring  from  branch 
to  branch  in  apparently  the  most  reckless  manner  with  a 
rapidity  that  enables  them  to  capture  birds  on  the  wing. 
The  Agile  Gibbon  flings  itself  from  tree  to  tree  a  distance 
of  no  less  than  forty  feet.  During  its  gymnastic  exercises 
it  gives  vent  to  loud  cries,  not  altogether  unmusical,  but 
nevertheless  dismal  and  melancholy  in  tone.  Very  few 


THE   MONKEY  TRIBE 


specimens  have  ever  found  their  way  into  captivity,  for  it 
seldom  frequents  the  ground  to  afford  an  opportunity  for 
its  capture,  and  among  the  trees  it  is  almost  as  difficult  to 
catch  as  a  bird. 

In  Sumatra  the  name  of  Ungka  is  frequently  used  for 
more  than  one  variety  of  Gibbon.  It  properly  belongs  to 

the  Siamang,  which  possesses  a 
feature  that  is  absent  in  its  near 
relations.  '  Syndactylus '  signifies 
'joined  fingers/  and  the  Ungka 
ape  has  the  first  and  second  toes 
joined  by  a  membrane  as  far  as 
the  second  joint.  The  animal 
has  a  dark  skin  covered  with 
stiff  hair,  which  is  practically  jet 
black. 

Grave  of  manner  and  mild  of 
temper,  the  Gibbons  are  easily 
domesticated.  An  adult  Siamang 
on  board  a  ship  bound  for 
England  greatly  interested  the 
passengers.  He  was  found  to 
be  fond  of  animal  food,  especi- 
ally fowls.  Spirits  and  wine 
he  refused,  but  tea  and  coffee 
he  accepted  with  avidity.  He 
appeared  to  be  still  fonder  of 
ink,  and  he  constantly  drained 
the  inkstands  and  never  omitted 
to  suck  a  pen-nib  that  came 
within  his  reach.  His  temper 
was  not  easily  roused,  and  his 
affectionate  nature  was  con- 
stantly evinced  in  his  fondness  for  play,  in  which  he 
always  preferred  children  to  adults. 

There  were  other  monkeys  aboard  who  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  Siamang  as  belonging  to  their  kindred. 
Probably  they  despised  him  on  account  of  his  lack  of  a 
tail.  He  speedily  taught  them  that  a  caudal  appendage 
may  be  a  distinct  disadvantage.  He  would  seize  one  of 


SKELETON   OF  THE  SIAMANG. 


TAILED  MONKEYS  53 

the  disdainful  creatures  by  the  tail  and  then  spring  up  into 
the  rigging,  dragging  the  unfortunate  after  him,  regardless 
of  its  struggles.  He  would  go  through  the  performance 
with  a  gravity  that  was  most  amusing  to  the  onlookers. 
The  monkeys  found  it  necessary  to  take  united  action 
against  their  tailless  persecutor,  but  he  usually  eluded  them 
with  the  greatest  ease.  He  would  seize  a  rope  and  swing 
from  his  pursuers,  or  he  would  walk  along  a  cord,  keeping 
his  balance  true  with  his  arms  like  a  tight-rope  performer. 
He  could  spring  from  one  rope  to  another  with  easy 
abandon,  and  even  drop  with  unerring  precision  from  a 
cord  aloft  to  seize  another  that  dangled  far  below. 


FAMILY   CERCOPITHECID^. 

All  the  remaining  apes  and  monkeys  of  the  Old  World  are 
included  in  the  family  Cercopithecidce,  i.e.,  Tailed  Monkeys, 
which  is  divided  into  two  sub-families — the  Cercopithecinae 
and  the  Semnopithecina3.  They  are  similar  in  construction 
to  the  Anthropoid  apes  in  many  particulars  ;  but,  with  the 
exception  of  one  or  two  species,  they  are  provided  with 
tails,  which  in  the  case  of  the  Baboons  are  short,  but  in 
most  instances  are  very  long.  It  has  been  before  remarked 
that  the  tail  is  never  prehensile.  Another  great  point  in 
which  these  monkeys  differ  from  the  Simiidas  is  that  the 
arms  are  shorter  than  the  legs,  which  is  the  reverse  in  the 
most  man-like  apes.  Indeed,  the  members  of  the  Quadru- 
mana  with  which  we  now  have  to  deal  are  distinctly  of  a 
more  quadrupedal  nature,  and  in  any  case  the  long  tail 
largely  dissipates  the  resemblance  to  the  human  form. 

Space  alone  will  prevent  even  the  mention  of  many 
monkeys,  but  the  following  present  special  points  of  inte- 
rest, and  are  fairly  representative  of  one  of  the  most 
popular  sections  of  the  animal  world. 

Most  of  the  monkeys  that  are  exhibited  in  this  country 
belong  to  the  great  genus  Cercopithecus,  and  many  of  them 
diifer  in  such  slight  particulars,  often  only  in  the  shade  of 
the  hair,  as  to  be  indistinguishable  except  to  a  practised 
eye.  Very  well  known  species  are  the  Green,  the  Vervet, 


54  THE   MONKEY  TRIBE 

and   the    Grivet ;   and  frequently  the   companion   of  the 
organ-grinder  will  be  found  to  be  one  of  the  three. 


GREEN   MONKEY    (Cercopithecus  sabceus). 
Coloured  Plate  III.  Fig.  2. 

The  Green  Monkey,  a  native  of  Western  Africa,  is  one 
of  the  commonest  of  imported  monkeys.  It  is  a  handsome 
species,  in  colour  a  general  olive-green,  as  its  name  denotes, 
with  black  hands  and  face  ;  the  hairy  fringe  at  the  sides  of 
the  face  is  almost  a  golden  yellow.  The  greenish  tinge  is 
particularly  noticeable  when  the  sun  shines  on  it.  Under 
the  microscope  a  single  hair  is  seen  to  be  really  yellow  with 
bluish  black  bands  at  intervals  ;  and  thus  the  green  is  but 
the  optical  blending  of  two  separate  colours  ;  and  by  means 
of  coloured  liquids  a  child  can  easily  demonstrate  that  blue 
and  yellow,  when  mixed,  produce  green. 

PIG-TAILED   MACAQUE   (Macacus  nemestrinus). 
Plate  II.  Fig.  i. 

The  Macaques  are  tolerably  well  known  animals,  various 
species  of  which  are  plentiful  in  the  lands  which  they 
inhabit,  and  they  lend  themselves  with  considerable  readi- 
ness to  domestication.  Being  hardy  of  constitution,  they 
are  often  seen  in  our  own  country,  and  share  with  the  Green 
Monkey  and  its  kin  the  doubtful  privilege  of  being  exhibited 
and  taught  to  perform  various  tricks.  Two  of  the  best 
known  are  the  Rhesus  or  Bhunder  Monkey  (Macacus  rhesus) 
and  the  Bonnet  Monkey  (Macacus  radiatus). 

The  Pig-tailed  Macaque  is  trained  by  the  natives  of  the 
Far  East  not  only  to  climb  cocoanut  trees,  but  also  to  select 
with  great  care  the  ripest  fruit  and  throw  it  to  the  ground 
below,  where  it  is  collected  and  stored  by  the  animal's 
trainer  and  owner.  The  animal  receives  its  name  from  the 
fact  that  its  tail  is  short  and  slender  and  bears  more  than 
a  little  resemblance  to  that  of  a  pig. 


Plate  m. 


5.  Ruffled  Lemur 


6.  Hanuman  Monkey 


THE   MACAQUES  55 

BARBARY   APE  (Macacus  inuus). 
Coloured  Plate  II.  Fig.  2. 

The  Macaques  are  chiefly  found  in  India,  China,  Japan, 
and  the  Malay  Archipelago ;  but  the  Barbary  Ape,  popularly 
called  the  Magot,  inhabits  North-west  Africa,  and  is 
particularly  interesting  in  that  it  is  the  only  example  of 
the  monkey  tribe  which  is  found  in  Europe,  where  it  is 
confined  to  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar.  How  it  came  there 
is  not  known  with  any  certainty.  Ages  and  ages  ago 
Gibraltar  and  North  Africa  were  joined  by  a  narrow  neck 
of  land,  just  as  England  and  France  were  connected  where 
is  now  the  Strait  of  Dover  ;  and  as  the  climate  of  the  South 
of  Spain  is  practically  that  of  Northern  Africa,  there  would 
be  no  cause  for  wonder  in  the  Barbary  Ape  taking  up  its 
quarters  there.  It  is,  however,  far  more  likely  that  the 
animal  was  introduced  into  Spain  by  the  Moors  when  they 
conquered  the  country  in  the  eighth  century  ;  or  the  present 
Gibraltar  apes  may  be  descendants  of  tame  ones  that  escaped 
from  captivity  to  renew  their  wild  life. 

The  Magot  is  largely  dog-like  in  appearance  ;  it  measures 
upwards  of  two  feet  in  length,  and  is  generally  about  the 
size  of  a  bull  terrier.  It  has  large  cheek  pouches  which  it 
loses  no  opportunity  of  stuffing  with  food.  Its  coat  is  grey 
with  a  yellowish  tinge  ;  it  is  quite  tailless.  Some  of  the 
Asiatic  Macaques  have  a  ruff  of  long  hair  round  the  neck, 
but  in  the  Magot  it  is  comparatively  short. 

In  North  Africa  the  animal  is  quite  common,  and  it  does 
much  damage  to  crops  in  Algeria  and  Morocco.  On  the 
Rock  it  often  plays  havoc  in  the  gardens,  and  it  would  not 
be  tolerated  but  for  the  amusement  it  affords,  though  owing 
to  its  shyness,  its  antics  can  only  be  well  observed  through 
a  good  telescope.  Sometimes  it  has  been  found  necessary 
to  thin  their  numbers  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  European 
specimens  would  at  some  periods  have  died  out  but  for  the 
introduction  of  fresh  blood  from  Africa.  The  animal  is 
gregarious,  and  sometimes  considerable  numbers  of  them 
can  be  seen  climbing  the  precipitous  sides  of  the  Rock,  the 
females  carrying  their  young  on  their  backs,  as  they  search 
for  lizards  and  insects. 


56  THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 

Many  amusing  stories  are  told  of  these  monkeys,  of  which 
one  must  suffice.  One  night  a  sentry  was  suddenly  roused 
to  a  sense  of  imminent  peril :  the  Rock  was  in  danger  of 
being  lost  to  the  British  Empire.  Just  before  the  dawn  he 
became  aware  of  a  strange  figure  from  which  came  most 
puzzling  metallic  sounds.  Receiving  no  reply  to  his 
stentorian  challenge,  the  sentry  fired  at  the  dimly  outlined 
figure  and  dropped  it  in  its  tracks.  The  garrison  sprang  to 
the  call,  the  guard  turned  out,  only  to  find  a  poor  Magot  in 
its  death-agony.  The  creature  had  broken  into  one  of  the 
kitchens  and  had  put  its  head  into  a  cooking  utensil,  from 
which  it  was  unable  to  withdraw  it.  In  its  struggles  to  get 
rid  of  its  unwelcome  headgear  the  ape  happened  upon  the 
sentry,  to  fill  his  mind  with  instant  fear  of  some  dark  scheme 
to  rob  us  of  one  of  our  most  cherished  possessions. 

WANDEROO  (Macacus  silenus). 
Plate  III.  Fig.  2. 

A  remarkable  species  is  the  Wanderoo,  which  the  Ceylon- 
ese  call  Nil  Bhunder,  i.e.,  Black  Monkey,  on  account  of 
the  colour  of  its  long  fur.  On  the  top  of  its  head  the  hair 
is  particularly  long,  falling  on  either  side  of  its  face  like 
the  full-dress  wig  of  a  judge.  It  also  possesses  a  long  grey 
beard,  so  that  it  has  quite  a  venerable  aspect.  Unlike  the 
other  Macaques,  it  has  a  tuft  of  hair  on  the  end  of  its  tail, 
much  like  that  of  a  lion.  The  Wanderoo  is  furnished  with 
cheek  pouches  of  considerable  size ;  and  probably  the 
rapidity  with  which  it  feeds  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
storing  away  a  portion  of  its  food  for  future  use.  The 
animal  stands  quite  thirty  inches  high,  weighs  as  much  as 
80  Ibs.,  and  is  possessed  of  considerable  muscular  power. 

YELLOW   BABOON  (Cynocephalus  babuin). 
Coloured  Plate  II.  Fig.  3. 

Of  all  the  monkey  tribe,  none  are  more  brutal,  ferocious, 
or  disgusting  than  the  Baboons,  which  are  large  African 
apes,  two  or  three  feet  in  length,  and  about  the  same  in 


THE   BABOON  57 

height.  The  generic  name  Cynocephalus  means  Dog-headed, 
and  Baboons  differ  from  all  the  rest  of  the  monkey 
family  in  the  muzzle,  which  is  elongated  into  a  snout 
pierced  with  nostrils  at  the  end  like  a  dog.  In  fact,  the 
face  generally  resembles  that  of  the  dog,  and  the  likeness 
is  increased  by  the  animal  seldom  walking,  or  even  stand- 
ing, other  than  on  all  fours.  Their  front  and  hind  legs 
being  differently  proportioned  from  those  of  the  Simiidae, 
they  can  run  swiftly  along  the  ground,  and  yet  can  climb 
rocks  and  trees  with  an  agility  equal  to  that  of  almost 
any  quadrumanous  beast.  Some  species  possess  tails  of 
considerable  length  ;  in  some  it  is  the  merest  stump,  with 
an  erect  tuft  of  hair.  The  hair  is  long,  and  often  on  the 
upper  parts  there  is  a  kind  of  mane,  which  becomes  grey 
in  the  animal's  later  years. 

Like  most  of  the  monkeys  of  the  Old  World,  Baboons 
have  callosities  on  the  buttocks,  and  they  also  possess  the 
cheek-pouches  with  which  so  many  monkeys  are  provided. 
A  Baboon's  pouches  are  of  sufficient  size  to  hold  seven 
or  eight  eggs  without  inconvenience,  allowing  it  to  eat 
them  at  its  leisure  one  at  a  time. 

In  the  Baboon  there  is  nothing  of  the  gentleness  of  the 
mias  or  gibbons,  nothing  of  the  amusing  vivacity  of 
monkeys  generally.  The  eyes  are  small,  close  set,  deeply 
sunk,  and  with  a  horribly  sinister  expression  that  gives 
the  animal  a  most  repulsive  appearance,  in  strict  keeping 
with  the  fierceness  which  is  the  distinguishing  feature  of  its 
character. 

Various  species  attain  a  large  size,  and  possess  such 
strength  that  they  can  rarely  be  taken  alive  except  when 
very  young.  They  are  quite  dreaded  by  the  inhabitants, 
for  the  animals  herd  themselves  together  in  great  numbers 
and  work  much  mischief  to  plantations  and  crops.  The 
Baboons  are  the  least  arboreal  of  all  the  Quadrumana. 
They  live  chiefly  on  roots  and  fruits ;  those  that  inhabit 
rocky  regions  feed  largely  upon  insects,  lizards,  &c.,  easily 
devouring  scorpions,  which  they  first  cleverly  deprive  of 
their  stings. 

The  Chacma  or  Pig-faced  Baboon  (Cynocephalus  porcarius) 
of  South  Africa,  when  it  runs  short  of  its  ordinary  food, 


58  THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 

will  raid  the  maize  crops  of  the  farmers  with  as  much 
organised  method  as  a  foraging  party  of  soldiers  would 
obtain  food  supplies.  Led  by  an  old  male,  the  whole 
Baboon  settlement  moves  at  once,  with  the  females  and 
the  young  ones  in  the  middle,  and  the  vanguard,  rearguard, 
and  flankers  under  strict  discipline.  Scouts  are  thrown  out 
to  prevent  the  party  being  surprised,  and  when  the  scene 
of  operations  is  reached,  sentries  are  duly  posted  to  keep 
a  sharp  look-out  on  every  side.  The  marauders  eat  their 
fill  and  then  retire  with  as  much  plunder  as  they  can  carry  ; 
and  even  if  they  are  disturbed  there  is  no  disorder  in  their 
retreat.  The  sentinels  take  no  part  in  the  actual  foray,  from 
which  it  is  evident  that  the  rest  of  the  band  make  due 
provision  for  their  needs. 

Dogs  are  usually  employed  by  farmers  to  hunt  the  apes, 
who  sometimes  terrorise  over  a  whole  district.  Individually 
a  dog  is  no  match  for  a  Baboon,  who  will  seize  its 
enemy  by  the  hind  legs  and  whirl  it  round  and  round 
until  it  is  too  giddy  and  stupefied  to  take  further  part  in 
the  hunt.  At  close  quarters  the  animal's  teeth  make  it  a 
dangerous  foe  ;  when  pressed,  it  will  retreat  and  cast  stones 
at  its  opponents. 

In  captivity  the  Baboon  is  equally  cunning,  mischievous, 
and  revengeful.  Its  keeper  is  never  safe  from  its  jealous, 
vindictive  temper.  In  one  instance,  a  menagerie  attendant 
was  playing  with  a  neighbouring  animal,  when  a  Baboon  in 
a  paroxysm  of  fury  forced  asunder  the  bars  of  its  cage  and 
grasped  the  unfortunate  man  by  the  neck.  Before  the  sinewy 
hands  could  be  removed  the  man  was  strangled  to  death. 

Everything  that  has  been  said  of  Baboons  in  general, 
or  the  Chacma  in  particular,  is  applicable  to  the  Yellow 
Baboon.  Its  coat  is  mainly  yellowish  in  colour  ;  the  face 
and  any  bare  parts  are  bluish  black.  Its  tail  is  of  greater 
length  than  in  most  other  species  of  the  genus. 

Baboons  are  also  found  in  Arabia,  Persia,  and  the 
mountains  of  Abyssinia.  It  was  probably  the  Thoth,  or 
Abyssinian  Baboon,  that  was  viewed  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians with  a  certain  amount  of  reverence.  There  appears 
to  be  no  real  proof  that  it  was  actually  worshipped.  It  is 
true  that  its  figure  is  often  found  depicted  in  sculptures, 


THE   MANDRILL  59 

and  Baboon  mummies  show  that  its  body  was  embalmed  ; 
but  it  does  not  follow  that  the  animal  was  an  object  of 
idolatrous  worship,  any  more  than  is  the  lion  of  England, 
the  dragon  of  St.  George,  the  eagle  of  France,  and  a  host 
of  other  animal  forms  that  are  used  as  national  emblems. 

On  the  West  Coast  of  Africa  a  troop  of  Baboons  one 
night  swooped  down  upon  a  station  and  carried  off  a 
baby  while  the  nurse  was  absent  from  her  charge.  It 
is  easy  to  imagine  the  mother's  agony  of  mind  while  she 
waited  hour  after  hour  for  the  return  of  the  party  of 
men  who  had  set  out  to  rescue  the  child.  They  were  un- 
successful, and  could  do  nothing  further  until  daylight. 
The  father  of  the  child  was  on  a  visit  to  a  distant  settle- 
ment and  was  in  ignorance  of  the  incident.  Providentially, 
as  he  returned  home,  he  encountered  the  Baboons,  and  in 
the  moonlight  he  saw  that  the  biggest  one  carried  a  bundle 
from  which  was  emitted  a  little  cry.  The  next  moment 
the  officer  spurred  his  horse  to  charge  into  the  midst 
of  the  apes,  intending  to  ride  down  the  one  that  carried 
the  bundle.  When  the  big  brute  dropped  it  to  escape 
into  the  bush,  the  man  dismounted,  to  find  that  he  had 
rescued  his  baby  boy,  fortunately  no  whit  the  worse  for 
the  terrible  experience. 

It  is  claimed  for  the  Baboon  that  it  can  be  trained  to 
render  useful  service  to  man.  It  has  been  taught  to  draw 
light  vehicles  ;  colonists  have  utilised  it  to  serve  as  a  watch- 
dog on  lonely  farms  ;  and  on  a  South  African  railway  a 
lame  employee  taught  a  tame  animal  to  set  the  signals.  The 
Baboon  is  certainly  sufficiently  strong  to  perform  even 
rather  laborious  tasks,  but  its  uncertain  temper  will  always 
prove  a  bar  to  its  useful  employment. 

MANDEILL  (Cynocephalus  mormon). 
Coloured  Plate  II.  Fig.  5. 

The  Mandrill,  or  Rib-nosed  Baboon,  is  extraordinarily 
hideous.  It  approaches  a  stature  of  three  feet ;  its  bulk  is 
great  and  its  strength  tremendous.  It  is  the  largest,  most 
ferocious,  and  most  powerful  of  the  whole  genus.  Its 


6o 


THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 


general  colour  is  light  olive-brown,  silvery  grey  under- 
neath, and  the  hair  on  the  head  not  infrequently  stands 
almost  on  end  to  form  a  pointed  tuft.  The  face  is  as 
remarkable  as  anything  that  can  be  found  in  the  whole 
of  the  animal  creation.  The  cheek  bones  of  the  male 
are  elevated  on  each  side,  with  oblique  ridges  of  a  brilliant 
blue.  Between  the  blue  masses  is  a  wide  stripe  of  scarlet 
extending  to  the  end  of  the  snout.  The  callosities  on  the 
hinder  part  are  usually  of  a  vivid  scarlet  hue,  assisting  to 
make  the  Mandrill  still  more  repulsive. 


SKELETON  OF  THE  MANDRILL. 


Even  if  taken  young  it  is  not  easily  domesticated,  though, 
like  most  animals,  it  can  be  rendered  comparatively  docile 
by  kind  but  firm  treatment.  A  Mandrill  was  for  a  long 
time  an  object  of  interest  at  Exeter  Change.  He  would 
sit  in  a  chair  with  great  gravity  while  he  smoked  a  pipe  ; 
it  was  doubtful  whether  he  relished  tobacco,  but  it  was 
very  certain  that  he  had  a  special  fondness  for  gin. 

But  even  in  captivity  the  animal  will  suddenly  exhibit 
the  most  violent  fury  without  any  apparent  reason,  and 


THE  MANGABEYS 


61 


by  various  gestures  and  actions  will  evince  the  utmost 
malignity.  Any  shrinking  or  sign  of  timidity  on  the  part 
of  a  spectator  is  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  make  a  still  more 
violent  demonstration,  as  if  it  were  anxious  to  inspire 
further  fear.  In  a  wild  state,  notwithstanding  its  strength 
and  ferocity,  it  is  at  heart  a  coward,  and  if  opposed  boldly 
will  promptly  retreat,  to  wage  the  contest  at  a  distance 
with  missiles.  Terror,  or  an  attempt  at  flight,  on  the  part 
of  the  animal  it  attacks  brings  about  inevitable  destruction 
the  moment  the  Mandrill  perceives  its  advantage. 

There  are  other  equally  interesting  species  of  the  genus 
Cercopithecus.  The  Diana  Monkey  (Cercopithecus  diand) 
receives  its  name  from  the  crescent-shaped  patch  of  white 
fur  upon  its  forehead,  which  is  very  similar  to  the  crescent 
which  ancient  sculptors  placed  upon  the  forehead  of  the 
goddess  Diana.  The  monkey's  black  pointed  beard,  how- 
ever, rather  detracts  from  the  resemblance  to  the  august 
pagan  deity.  The  Diana  is  one  of  the  most  beautifully 
coloured  creatures  in  the  monkey  world,  the  back  being 
chestnut  brown,  the  chest  white,  while  the  rest  of  the  body 
is  of  a  golden  hue  with  a  reddish  tinge. 

The  White-nosed  Monkey  (Cercopithecus  petauristd)  has 
a  white  nose  and  a  fringe  of  white  hair  surrounding  its 
face,  which  quite  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  any 
other  species.  An- 
other small  group 
known  as  Mangabeys 
were  originally  named 
in  the  belief  that  they 
were  natives  of  Mada- 
gascar, whereas  they 
are  restricted  to 
Western  Africa.  Their 
distinguishing  feature 

is   white   eyelids,    for  FOOT  AND  HAND  OF  THE  MANGABEY. 

which     reason     they 

are  often  called  the  White-Eyelid  Monkeys,  Plate  III. 
Fig.  i.  The  White-collared  Mangabey  (Cercocebus  collaris) 


62  THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 

possesses  the  white  eyelids  and  also  a  frill  or  ruff  of 
long  white  hair.  Active  and  amusing  in  captivity,  the 
Mangabeys  are  full  of  pranks,  and  at  making  faces  they 
have  no  equal.  They  walk  on  all  fours,  bending  the  tail 
backwards  until  the  tip  quite  overhangs  the  head. 


PATAS  OR  BED  MONKEY  (Cercopithecus  patas). 
Plate  II.  Fig.  2. 

The  Patas,  or  Red  Monkey,  is  common  to  West  Africa, 
especially  in  the  Senegal  region.  It  is  a  pretty  animal  with 
yellowish-red  fur,  becoming  lighter  on  the  under  parts ;  on 
the  forehead  is  a  black  band  with  white  crosses.  It  is 
violent  and  malicious,  and  by  no  means  a  favourable 
specimen  of  its  race.  That  it  is  curious,  mischievous, 
and  possessed  of  a  determined  spirit  of  retaliation,  is 
well  shown  in  the  account  of  a  traveller  who  passed 
through  the  forest  wilds  which  the  Red  Monkey  makes 
its  home. 

When  the  explorer  and  his  party  passed  along  the  river 
in  boats,  the  creatures  descended  from  the  tops  of  the  trees 
to  the  extremities  of  the  branches  the  better  to  investigate 
closer  the  novel  spectacle.  Not  satisfied  with  this,  they 
commenced  offensive  operations  and  threw  pieces  of  wood 
and  other  missiles  at  the  invaders.  At  first  the  travellers 
were  amused,  but  the  flight  of  missiles  developed  into  a 
perfect  bombardment  that  made  progress  well-nigh  impos- 
sible. When  fired  upon,  the  creatures  uttered  frightful 
cries  ;  and  although  many  fell,  the  survivors  returned  again 
and  again  to  the  attack  with  the  utmost  perseverance  and 
resolution.  At  length  the  monkeys  realised  the  inequality 
of  the  contest  and  retired  to  allow  the  travellers  to  continue 
their  journey  in  peace. 

The  genus  Semnopithecus  is  not  nearly  so  numerous  in 
species  as  the  Cercopithecus,  nor  are  any  of  its  represen- 
tatives so  well  known  in  our  country  as  are  many  of  the 
latter.  If  the  Semnopithecus  tribe  only  knew  it,  they  might 
congratulate  themselves  upon  the  fact  that  they  are  so  little 


SACRED  MONKEYS  63 

known  in  England  ;  for  while  monkeys  in  zoological 
collections  are  well  treated,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  the  simian  assistants  of  the  barrel-organ  grinder  are 
taught  their  tricks  by  fear  rather  than  kindness. 


HANUMAN   MONKEY  (Semnopithecus  entellus). 
Coloured  Plate  III.  Fig.  6. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Israelites  of  old  reared 
up  the  golden  calf  of  idol  homage  at  the  very  time  when 
God  was  affording  special  evidences  that  they  were  His 
chosen  people.  While  there  may  be  uncertainty  whether 
the  Egyptians  worshipped  the  baboon,  there  is  no  room 
for  doubt  that  for  long  ages  the  Hindus  held  in  sacred 
reverence  various  members  of  the  brute  creation.  Even 
under  modern  conditions  of  life,  closer  association  with 
Western  peoples,  and  the  spread  of  Christianity,  the 
worship  of  animals  still  remains,  though  with  less  revolting 
features  than  was  formerly  the  case. 

The  Hanuman  Monkey  is  supposed  by  the  Hindus  to  be 
a  visible  incarnation  of  the  god  Vishnu,  and  consequently 
the  temples  dedicated  to  the  god  are  happy  havens  for  this 
particular  species.  They  simply  swarm  about  the  cities 
and  villages  where  Vishnu  is  worshipped.  The  beautiful 
carvings  of  the  temples  and  even  the  holiest  idol  shrines 
are  denied  by  the  jabbering  creatures,  who,  not  content 
with  the  offerings  of  the  faithful,  rob  orchards,  pilfer  from 
fruit  stalls,  and  even  enter  shops  in  search  of  delicacies. 
No  native  would  dream  of  taking  active  offensive  measures 
against  the  four-handed  robbers.  Efforts  have  been  made  to 
get  rid  of  this  holy  scourge  by  deporting  large  numbers  of 
the  monkeys  to  certain  fertile  spots,  specially  purchased  and 
cultivated  for  them  ;  but  the  monkeys  prefer  town  life,  and 
usually  contrive  to  return  to  the  temples.  In  a  city  in  the 
North-west  Provinces  two  English  officers  were  attacked 
by  several  monkeys  in  one  of  the  chief  thoroughfares. 
Purely  in  self-defence  the  white  men  wounded  one  of 
the  sacred  animals,  which  immediately  raised  the  anger 
of  the  priests  and  pilgrims.  A  fanatical  mob  gathered, 


64  THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 

the  Englishmen  were  seized,  thrown  into  the  river,   and 
drowned. 

In  build  the  Hanuman  is  slender,  measuring  about  two 
feet  in  length,  with  a  tail  quite  as  long  as  the  body.  Its  fur 
is  greyish  brown,  with  a  line  of  a  darker  shade  along  the 
back ;  but  as  the  animal  increases  in  years  black  hairs 
sprinkle  its  coat,  darkening  it  in  colour. 

PROBOSCIS   MONKEY  (Nasalis  larvatus). 

The  Proboscis  Monkey,  or  Kahu,  is  a  native  of  Borneo. 
In  size  it  is  about  equal  to  the  Hanuman,  but  thanks  to  its 
enormously  lengthened  nose  it  is  by  no  means  so  presentable 
an  animal.  But  if  the  Kahu's  countenance  is  almost  preter- 
naturally  ugly,  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  the  beautiful 
colouring  of  its  coat.  The  body  is  principally  a  bright 
chestnut  red,  deepening  into  a  rich  brown  tint  on  the  head 
and  between  the  shoulders,  while  the  arms  and  legs  are 
several  shades  lighter.  The  sides  of  the  face  and  the  under 
parts  of  the  body  are  golden  yellow.  The  tail  is  a  yellowish 
white.  The  animal  is  an  agile  creature,  leaping  fifteen  feet 
or  more  with  ease  as  it  travels  through  the  trees  in  small 
companies. 

We  now  come  to  Group  II.,  the  PLATYRRHINI  (Wide- 
nosed  Monkeys),  the  monkeys  of  the  New  World.  Unlike 
those  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere, 
they  have  less  projecting  faces,  the 
nostrils  are  wide  apart,  and  there 
is  an  absence  of  cheek  pouches  and 
callosities.  The  thumb,  where  it 
exists,  is  not  opposable  and  the  tail 
is  long  and  in  most  cases  prehen- 
sile. Except  in  a  very  few  instances 
they  are  smaller  than  those  of  the 
Old  World,  which  have  been 
A  PLATYRRHINE  MONKEY,  described  at  such  length  as  to 
render  unnecessary  any  detailed 

account  of  the  American  animals,  except  where  they  possess 
some  specially  noticeable  feature. 


PLATE  III. 


i.    MANGABEY. 

(See  page  61) 


WANDEROO. 

(See  page  56) 


(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


PLATE  IV. 


i.     SPIDER    MONKEY. 


2.     COMMON    MARMOSET. 
(See  page  69) 


(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


NEW   WORLD    MONKEYS  65 

SPIDER   MONKEYS. 

The  Spider  Monkeys  are  grouped  together  in  a  genus 
to  which  has  been  given  the  name  Ateles,  which  betokens 
the  deprivation  of  joints  :  some  of  the  animals  possess  no 
thumb  and  in  others  it  is  very  rudimentary.  To  their  small 
bodies  is  attached  a  diminutive  head,  long,  slender  limbs, 
and  a  very  long  prehensile  tail.  There  is  no  wonder  that 
a  humorous  writer  likened  the  Spider  Monkey  to  five  black 
ropes  tied  in  a  knot  to  represent  the  head  and  body,  the 
dangling  rope-ends  being  the  legs  and  tail. 

A  prehensile  tail  is  in  reality  a  fifth  hand,  and  why  Nature 
should  have  denied  the  Old  World  monkeys  such  an  advan- 
tage is  inexplicable.  A  prehensile  appendage  is  nearly  as 
useful  to  a  monkey  as  is  a  trunk  to  an  elephant.  If  the 
former  discover  some  dainty,  such  as  eggs  or  insects,  in 
a  cranny  too  small  to  allow  it  to  insert  a  paw,  the  end 
of  the  tail  is  requisitioned  to  hook  out  the  desired  object. 

Thick  and  strong  where  the  tail  is  united  to  the  body, 
it  rapidly  decreases  in  circumference  towards  the  end,  where 
it  is  very  slender  and  devoid  of  hair  on  the  under  surface 
to  allow  of  a  nicer  application  in  grasping.  Quite  involun- 
tarily it  forms  a  hook-like  curve,  just  as  readily  as  the  claws 
of  a  bird  contract  when  in  the  act  of  perching.  It  is  next 
to  an  impossibility  for  the  monkey  to  fall,  for  it  seldom 
moves  without  twisting  the  tail  round  a  branch.  Even 
when  shot  it  will  hang  by  its  appendage  until  long  after 
death — in  some  cases  until  decomposition  sets  in. 

On  the  ground  the  Spider  Monkey  cannot  walk  on  its 
hind  feet,  but  it  can  run  upon  them  for  a  few  yards, 
balancing  itself  by  raising  its  long  arms  over  its  head,  and 
still  more  by  bending  the  tail  over  its  back  in  the  shape  of 
the  letter  S. 

A  traveller  relates  an  incident  of  which  he  was  an  eye- 
witness. He  was  exploring  a  stream  that  flowed  into  the 
Amazon,  and  had  reached  a  point  where  the  trees  on  the 
banks  nearly  met  overhead.  It  was  not  prudent  to  proceed 
or  return  in  the  dark,  and  the  boat  was  anchored  in  mid- 
stream. 

'  The  air  was  full  of  strange  sounds,  made  by  birds  and 

6 


66  THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 

insects,  which  kept  me  awake  until  just  before  the  dawn, 
when  I  fell  asleep  in  my  chair  on  the  deck.  Suddenly  I 
felt  a  rough  blow  on  my  face,  and  became  wide  awake. 
I  saw  hanging  from  a  tree,  and  swinging  into  the  gloom, 
something  that  looked  like  a  huge  black  rope.  The  end  of 
it  had  struck  me.  In  a  moment  back  it  came,  swinging  this 
time  behind  the  vessel. 

'  The  rope  gave  forth  a  chattering  noise  ;  it  was  alive. 
A  moment  more,  and  it  was  clear  to  me  that  here  was  a 
company  of  monkeys  trying  to  cross  the 
stream.  The  sight  was  so  novel,  the  plan 
so  daring,  that  at  once  I  gave  these  queer 
bridge-makers  my  closest  attention. 

'  They  were  hanging  from  a  tall  palm- 
tree  that  leaned  out  over  the  water ;  there 
was  a  line  thirty  feet  long,  and  three  or 
four  monkeys  deep,  holding  on  to  each 
other  as  if  the  fate  of  the  monkey  race 
depended  upon  them. 

*  Little  by  little  the  breathing,  clinging 
pendulum  kept  gaining.  Very  soon  it 
swung  out  so  far  that  the  leader  caught 
a  branch  of  a  tree  on  the  opposite  bank, 
when,  lo  !  there  was  a  bridge  in  mid-air. 
At  once  there  rose  from  all  the  line  a 
chattering  that  must  have  been  monkey 
cheers. 

'  Without  further  ado  the  bridge  was 
opened  to  the  monkey  public,  and  out 
of  the  palm-tree  came  a  noisy  crowd  of 
all  ages.  They  ran  across  the  bridge  as  best  they  could, 
some  on  all  fours,  some  upright,  some  with  young  mon- 
keys on  their  backs,  and  all  waving  their  tails  and  briskly 
jabbering. 

'  The  last  one  to  cross  was  evidently  a  patriarch  of  the 
colony,  for  he  picked  his  way  along  so  slowly  and  nervously 
that  I  could  not  help  laughing  outright.  Hearing  so  un- 
usual a  noise,  the  monkeys  that  were  clinging  to  the  palm 
did  not  wait  for  him,  but  let  go  and  swung  over  to  the 
other  side.  The  old  fellow  narrowly  escaped  a  ducking. 


THE  RED   HOWLER  67 

'No  sooner  had  the  bridge  cleared  the  water  than  the 
monkeys  loosened  their  grip  of  one  another.  In  less  time 
than  it  takes  to  tell  the  story,  the  bridge  dropped  to  pieces, 
and — what  never  happens  to  a  common  bridge — the  pieces 
betook  themselves  to  the  tops  of  the  trees,  and  were  soon 
out  of  sight  in  the  depths  of  the  forest/ 

CO  AIT  A  (A  teles  paniscus). 

One  of  the  best  examples  of  the  Spider  Monkey  is  the 
Coaita.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  genus,  mainly  black 
with  a  pink  face.  Mild  and  gentle,  it  is  a  great  favourite 
with  the  pet-loving  natives  of  Surinam  and  Guiana.  The 
monkeys  themselves  have  no  cause  to  be  thankful  for  this 
fondness,  for  monkey-flesh  is  a  popular  dish.  Monkeys  are 
not  greatly  esteemed  as  food  in  the  Old  World,  although 
they  are  eaten  in  some  regions  for  lack  of  something  better ; 
but  in  many  parts  of  South  America,  especially  the  valley  of 
the  Amazon,  they  figure  largely  in  the  everyday  fare  of  the 
natives.  Mr.  Wallace  found  the  meat  to  be  not  unlike 
rabbit,  but  European  travellers,  when  obliged  to  utilise  the 
monkey,  will  never  consent  to  serve  the  head  and  hands  at 
their  tables  on  account  of  their  hideous  resemblance  to 
those  of  a  child.  It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  savages 
have  sometimes  been  accused  of  cannibalism  when  they 
were  only  indulging  in  their  liking  for  the  quadrumanous 
beast.  The  species  presented  on  the  plate  is  the  Variegated 
Spider  Monkey  (Aides  variegatus),  Plate  IV.  Fig.  i. 

BED  HOWLER  (Mycetes  seniculus). 
Coloured  Plate  II.  Fig.  i. 

A  near  relative  of  the  Spider  Monkey  is  the  Howler, 
different  species  of  which  vary  in  length  from  a  foot  and 
a  half  to  three  feet,  the  larger  ones  being  strong  and  ferocious 
to  a  degree.  They  inhabit  the  north-eastern  parts  of  South 
America,  and  are  the  largest  monkeys  in  the  New  World. 
In  nature  and  disposition  they  are  allied  to  the  baboons. 
The  Red  Howler  is  clothed  with  red  hair,  lightening  into 


68  THE  MONKEY  TRIBE 

yellow ;  its  face  is  black  and  naked,  and  that  of  the  adult 
male  is  surrounded  by  a  profuse  beard. 

The  generic  Greek  word  Mycetes  means  'to  moan/  and 
is  applied  to  the  animal  on  account  of  the  peculiar  con- 
struction of  the  throat,  which  enables  it  to  emit  the  most 
extraordinary  sounds.  The  hyoid  bone  forms  a  hollow 
drum  communicating  with  the  larynx,  and  gives  such  pro- 
digious power  and  resonance  to  the  voice  that  the  animal 
can  make  hideous  noises  that  can  be  heard  miles  away. 
The  Howlers  live  in  troops,  and  swing  their  way  through 
the  woods  with  great  agility.  It  is  chiefly  at  night  that 
they  practise  their  vocal  exercises.  Waterton,  the  cele- 
brated naturalist,  thus  describes  the  effect :  '  Nothing  can 
sound  more  dreadful  than  its  nocturnal  howlings.  While 
lying  in  your  hammock  in  those  gloomy  and  unmeasurable 
wilds  you  hear  howling  at  intervals  from  eleven  o'clock  at 
night  until  daybreak.  You  would  suppose  that  half  the 
wild  beasts  of  the  forest  were  collecting  for  the  work  of 
carnage.  Now  it  is  the  tremendous  roar  of  the  jaguar  as 
he  springs  upon  his  prey ;  now  it  changes  to  his  deep-toned 
growlings  as  he  is  pressed  on  all  sides  by  superior  force ; 
and  now  you  hear  his  last  dying  moan  beneath  a  mortal 
wound.' 

CAPUCHIN  MONKEY  (Cebus  capucinus). 
Coloured  Plate  III.  Fig.  3. 

The  Capuchin  Monkey  is  one  of  many  similar  species 
found  in  nearly  all  the  forests  of  tropical  America,  from 
which  it  differs  only  in  being  destitute  of  the  raised  crest 
which  is  a  conspicuous  feature  of  many  monkeys  in  the 
same  genus.  It  is  usually  about  a  foot  in  length,  with  fur 
variable  in  tint,  but  more  often  than  not  it  is  a  golden  olive, 
with  a  white  border  round  the  face.  Lively  and  playful, 
the  Capuchin  is  a  favourite  with  the  natives  and  with  the 
European  settlers.  In  common  with  many  of  the  smaller 
monkeys,  it  frequently  sets  up  a  friendship  with  other 
animals  in  and  about  the  house.  It  will  become  the  firm 
friend  of  a  cat,  and  will  often  seat  itself  upon  the  back  of  a 
pig  and  bestride  its  unwilling  steed  even  when  it  is  feeding 


THE   MARMOSET  69 

in  the  savannahs  a  long  distance  from  home.  Italian  organ- 
grinders  prefer  this  monkey  almost  to  any  other.  Usually  it 
is  quite  harmless,  but  its  temper  is  unreliable.  Sometimes, 
without  provocation,  it  will  spring  upon  a  bystander  and 
inflict  a  nasty  bite  before  the  victim  is  aware  of  the  animal's 
purpose. 

There  yet  remain  various  monkeys  of  more  or  less  interest, 
deserving  of  some  extended  notice  did  space  permit.  The 
Saki,  elegant  in  form,  is  clothed  with  long  furry  hair,  which 
doubtless  serves  a  very  useful  purpose  in  saving  it  from  the 
stings  of  wild  bees  when  the  animal  raids  the  nests  in  search 
of  honeycomb,  which  is  its  favourite  food.  One  species 
(Pithecia  chiropotes)  is  called  the  Hand-drinker,  because  it 
does  not  apply  its  lips  to  the  liquid,  but  takes  it  up  in  the 
hollow  of  its  hand  and  thus  conveys  it  to  its  mouth. 
The  Douroucouli  (Nyctipithecus  trivirgatus)  is  the  owl  of 
the  monkey  race.  It  spends  the  hours  of  daylight  in  a 
deep  sleep,  from  which  it  cannot  be  roused  even  to  avoid 
capture.  But  at  night  it  becomes  filled  with  life  and  spirit, 
and  captures  not  only  birds  in  the  trees,  but  winged  insects 
as  they  flit  by.  Lastly,  we  come  to  two  little  animals  with 
which  our  inquiries  into  the  Anthropoidea  must  come  to 
an  end. 

MABMOSET  (Hdfale  Jacchus). 
Plate  IV.  Fig.  2. 

One  of  the  few  monkeys  that  can  with  truthfulness  be 
termed  pretty  is  the  Marmoset.  There  are  several  species, 
and  all  are  beautiful,  with  the  gentle,  engaging  manners 
which  have  earned  for  them  the  generic  name  of  Hdpale, 
or  sweet.  Only  seven  or  eight  inches  long,  or  about  as  big 
as  a  full-grown  rat,  the  thick,  soft  fur  and  the  long,  bushy 
tail,  a  foot  in  length,  give  it  the  aspect  of  a  considerably 
larger  animal.  The  colour  of  the  coat  is  a  peculiarly  rich 
brown,  which  appears  quite  ruddy  when  the  hairs  are  blown 
aside.  The  tail,  which  is  not  prehensile,  is  light  grey,  ringed 
with  black,  and  there  is  a  prominent  tuft  of  white  hair  on 
either  side  of  the  head,  standing  out  before  the  ears.  The 


70  THE  LEMURS 

Marmoset  has  claws  instead  of  nails  except  on  its  great  toe. 
Its  voice  is  a  low,  gentle  whistle,  quickly  repeated  when 
alarmed,  for  which  reason  the  French  settlers  call  it  Ouistiti. 
The  Marmoset  is  common  in  many  parts  of  South 
America.  Its  chief  food  consists  of  fruit,  but  it  is  very  fond 
of  insects.  A  visitor  to  the  Zoological  Gardens  will  find 
that  the  little  animal  will  accept  a  biscuit  or  a  nut,  but  it 
will  view  him  as  a  positive  benefactor  if  he  will  catch  a  few 
flies  and  pass  them  into  the  cage. 

LION  TAMARIN  (Midas  rosalia). 

The  Tamarins  are  called  the  Silky  Marmosets.  They 
are  very  general  in  the  forests  of  the  Amazon.  The  Lion 
Tamarin,  in  colour,  is  rather  yellower  than  our  common 
squirrel.  Its  naked  face  set  in  the  midst  of  a  circular  mane 
gives  the  little  creature  a  more  than  passing  resemblance  to 
a  tiny  lion — hence  leoninus  is  another  specific  name.  In 
common  with  the  Marmosets,  the  Tamarins  can  be  easily 
tamed,  and  consequently  are  often  kept  as  pets. 

SECTION  IL—LEMUROIDEA. 

We  now  pass  from  the  Monkeys,  by  a  very  natural  transi- 
tion, to  a  singular  race  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  quadru- 
manous  animals,  which  appears  to  connect  the  higher 
anthropoids  to  the  genuine  quadrupeds.  The  appellation 
of  Lemur  (Lat.  lemure,  a  ghost)  was  given  to  them  on 
account  of  their  nocturnal  habits.  They  are  restricted  to 
the  island  of  Madagascar,  which,  though  close  to  Africa, 
well  wooded,  and  with  a  favourable  temperature,  strangely 
enough  does  not  possess  a  single  species  of  genuine  monkey. 

In  disposition  gentle,  and  in  habit  active,  the  Lemurs 
display  neither  the  vivacity,  cunning,  nor  curiosity  of  the 
monkey,  to  whom  they  are  certainly  inferior  in  intelligence. 
In  size  they  are  generally  equal  to  a  large  cat,  and,  indeed, 
the  name  Madagascar  cats  is  often  applied  to  the  whole 
race.  The  muzzle  is  long  and  pointed  ;  the  fur  woolly ; 
and  the  second  fingers  or  toes  have  claws,  instead  of 
being  furnished  with  nails  as  are  their  other  digits.  The 


THE   RUFFLED  LEMUR  71 

eyes  are  enormously  large  to  allow  the  animals  to  see  their 
food  in  the  dark.  The  fingers  are  tipped  with  soft  pads,  by 
which  the  animals  are  enabled  to  move  among  the  branches 
in  absolute  silence.  The  teeth  possess  some  characteristics 
of  those  of  the  insectivorous  quadrupeds ;  and  when  they 
bite,  the  wound,  from  the  length  and  cutting  edge  of  the 
canine  teeth,  is  very  serious.  In  the  daytime  one  finds  the 
Lemurs  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  usually  curled  up  asleep 
in  their  cages.  In  captivity  their  food  is  usually  bread  and 
various  fruits  ;  but  in  a  wild  state  they  add  lizards  and 
small  birds  to  their  frugivorous  diet.  They  take  up  their 
food  in  their  hands  like  monkeys,  but  without  raising  them- 
selves up  or  sitting  on  their  haunches. 

RUFFLED  LEMUR  (Lemur  varius}. 
Coloured  Plate  III.  Fig.  5. 

Though  it  is  the  most  striking  and  handsome  of  its  race, 
the  Ruffled  Lemur  is  fairly  typical  of  the  ten  species  found 


SKELETON  OF  THE  RUFFLED  LEMUR. 


in  Madagascar.     The  Red  Lemur  (Lemur  ruber),  the  Black- 
faced  (Lemur  nigrifrons)t  the  Collared  (Lemur  collaris),  and 


72  LEMUR-LIKE   ANIMALS 

the  Ring-tailed  (Lemur  catta),  as  their  names  imply,  possess 
notable  features  of  difference  in  their  general  appearance. 
The  black  and  white  in  almost  equal  proportions  of  the 
Ruffled  variety  are  in  sharp  contrast ;  and  the  large  ruff 
round  the  neck  and  the  great  bushy  tail,  not  unlike  a  lady's 
black  fur  boa,  add  greatly  to  the  elegance  and  the  tout 
ensemble  of  the  whole  figure.  When  sleeping,  all  Lemurs 
curl  themselves  into  a  ball  and  coil  the  tail  round  the  body 
to  keep  it  warm.  If  several  Ring-tailed  ones  inhabit  the 
same  cage  they  sleep  together,  clinging  closely  to  each 
other,  and  wrapping  their  thinner  tails  impartially  round 
themselves  or  their  friends  until  it  is  impossible  to  dis- 
tinguish the  owner  of  any  particular  appendage. 

The  last  group  of  the  Quadrumana  are  the  Lemuroids,  i.e., 
Lemur-like  animals.  At  one  time  they  were  confounded 
with  the  true  Lemurs,  but  they  inhabit  different  countries 
and  exhibit  marked  characteristics. 


BROWN  MOUSE  LEMUR  (Chirogaleus  milii). 
Plate  V.  Fig.  2. 

The  Mouse  Lemurs  are  among  the  smallest  of  their  tribe, 
some,  at  least,  of  them  being  less  in  size  than  an  ordinary 
rat.  Not  a  few  of  them  are  hibernators,  becoming  dormant 
not  in  the  coldest,  but  in  the  hottest  period  of  the  year.  In 
later  pages  will  be  found  references  to  the  hibernation  of 
various  animals,  most  of  which  become  extremely  fat  just 
before  they  retire  for  a  season  ;  but  the  Mouse  Lemurs  store 
up  fat  only  in  the  region  of  the  base  of  the  tail.  The  Brown 
Mouse  Lemur  is  only  about  two-thirds  of  a  foot  in  length, 
to  which  must  be  added  the  long  tail.  The  greyish-brown 
fur  is  remarkably  fine  and  silky ;  it  is  white  on  the  throat 
and  underparts. 

The  Dwarf  Mouse  Lemur  is  only  half  the  size  of  the  fore- 
going. The  most  marked  feature  of  the  little  creature  is  its 
beautifully  brilliant  eyes.  In  the  top  of  a  tall  tree  it  con- 
structs a  nest  which  in  size  and  appearance  might  easily 
be  taken  for  that  of  a  rook. 


THE   LEMUROIDS  73 

SLENDEE  LORIS  (Loris  gracilis). 
Coloured  Plate  III.  Fig.  4. 

The  Slender  Loris  is  a  small  animal  only  eight  or  nine 
inches  long,  which  gains  its  name  on  account  of  the  delicate 
slenderness  of  its  limbs.  It  has  no  tail,  and  its  arms  and 
legs  are  very  long.  It  sleeps  during  the  day,  but  at  night  it 
is  a  terrible  enemy  to  birds,  upon  which  it  feeds  in  addition 
to  fruit  and  insects.  Its  movements  are  the  acme  of  stealthi- 
ness  ;  there  is  nothing  to  indicate  its  presence  save  its  big 
round  eyes  gleaming  like  phosphorescent  fire.  Like  a  flash 
it  seizes  its  feathered  prey  and  bites  off  its  head  before  the 
bird  is  aware  of  the  presence  of  danger.  Though  during 
daylight  the  animal  lies  rolled  up  in  a  ball  upon  a  branch, 
there  is  no  likelihood  of  it  falling ;  for  the  muscles  and 
tendons  of  the  legs  automatically  contract  to  grasp  the 
perch.  The  Slow  Loris  (Nycticebus  tardigradus)  is  of  similar 
habits.  It  is  known  by  many  names,  of  which  Kukang  is  a 
common  one ;  but  Anglo-Indians  usually  call  it  Bashful  Billy. 

There  are  also  the  Galagos,  another  singular  tribe  of 
animals  peculiar  to  Africa.  They  possess  the  main  charac- 
teristics of  the  Lemuroid  group,  with  the  addition  of  large 
membranous  naked  ears,  the  powers  of  which  are  remark- 
ably acute.  Their  manners  are  those  of  monkeys  and 
squirrels;  they  perch 
among  the  foliage  of 
trees,  where  they  pursue 
their  insect  food,  which 
they  capture  with  the 
hand.  Like  squirrels, 
they  make  nests  in  which  SOLE  OF  FOOT  OF  GARXETT'S  GALAGO. 
they  rear  their  young  ones. 

In  zoological  collections  the  Maholi  Galago  (Plate  I. 
Fig.  i),  with  its  delicate  woolly  fur,  is  always  an  interesting 
captive.  It  feeds  on  bread,  fruit,  and  milk,  but  meal  worms 
afford  it  special  pleasure.  So  quickly  will  it  snap  them  up 
with  its  forepaws  and  convey  them  to  its  mouth  that  it 
is  difficult  for  the  eye  to  follow  the  movements. 


74  LEMUR-LIKE  ANIMALS 

The  Tarsier  (Tarsius  spectrum),  which  is  found  in  Borneo, 
Sumatra,  and  Java,  is  a  similar  nocturnal  animal,  with  arms 
much  shorter  than  the  legs  and  a  tail  longer  than  the  body. 
Two  of  the  toes,  the  second  and  third,  of  the  hind  foot 
possess  claws,  but  the  fingers  and  other  toes  are  furnished 
with  nails. 


AYE- A  YE  (Chiromys  Madagascariensis}. 
Coloured  Plate  III.  Fig.  i. 

The  Aye-aye  is  an  extraordinary  animal,  found  only  in 
Madagascar.  The  generic  name  is  derived  from  two  Greek 

words,  one  of  which  signifies  a 
hand  and  the  other  a  mouse.  The 
Aye-aye  is  rather  rare,  even  in 
its  native  home.  When  in  1780 
a  celebrated  traveller,  Sonnerat, 
discovered  it,  the  natives  who 
accompanied  him  were  evidently 
unaware  of  its  existence,  for  they 
SKULL  OF  THE  AYE-AYE.  cried  out  in  astonishment,  '  Aye  ! 
Aye  !'  The  discoverer  at  once 

adopted    the    exclamation   as    the   name  of    this  hitherto 
practically  unknown  creature. 

When  brought  to  Europe  the  animal  caused  more  than 
passing  interest  because  of  the  doubt  how  best  to  classify  it. 
It  possesses  enormous  incisor  teeth,  a  distinguishing  feature 
of  the  rodents,  and,  in  fact,  the  Aye-aye  bites  deeply  into 
trunks  and  branches  in  search  of  grubs,  which  form  a  large 
part  of  its  food.  The  difficulty,  however,  does  not  end 
there.  The  limbs  are  undoubtedly  quadrumanous  ;  the 
monkey-like  foot  has  an  opposable  toe ;  but  the  hand  is 
peculiar  to  the  animal  and  quite  unlike  that  of  any  other 
known  creature.  The  thumb  is  small  and  insignificant ; 
the  fingers  are  slight  and  of  great  length,  with  the  middle 
one  almost  like  wire  in  its  degree  of  attenuation.  The 
movement  of  this  wiry  middle  finger  is  quite  independent 
of  the  others  ;  it  can  be  used  when  the  other  fingers  and 
thumb  remain  closed.  Its  purpose  is  to  pick  out  of  the 


PLATE  V. 


i.     COLUGO.  2.     BROWN    MOUSE    LEMUR. 

(See  page  72) 


THE   FLYING  LEMUR 


75 


timber  the  grubs  and  insects  which  the  incisor  teeth  have 
disclosed.  The  animal 
is  about  a  yard  in 
length,  including  the 
tail.  In  colour  it  is 
nearly  black,  with  the 
cheeks,  throat,  and 
underparts  a  light  grey. 
The  brownish  eyes  are 
very  sensitive  to  light. 
It  builds  a  globular 
nest  of  dry  leaves  at 
some  height  from  the 
ground.  The  natives 
view  the  animal  with 
superstitious  dread,  be- 
lieving that  any  one 
who  touches  it  will  die 
within  the  year,  and  FOOT  OF  AYE-AYE. 
this  fact  has  not 

rendered   it  easier  to  learn  reliable  particulars  concerning 
the  Aye-aye's  life  and  habits. 


HAND  OF  AYE-AYE. 


COLUGO  (Galeopithecus  volans). 
Plate  V.  Fig.  i. 

The  Colugo    or    Flying    Lemur,  the    last    member    of 

the  Quadrumana,  is 
also  a  matter  of  dis- 
pute among  zoologists, 
some  of  whom  would 
place  it  among  the 
Insectivora,  while 
others  insist  upon  it 
ff\  forming  an  entirely 
separate  order,  the 
Dermoptera,  or  skin- 
winged  animals. 

HIND  FOOT  OF  THE  COLUGO.  T^6     IS     «     ™?     ^ 

(Four-fifths  natural  size.)  only    one    family  and 


76 


SKIN-WINGED  ANIMALS 


one  genus  of  these  creatures,  of  which  the  common  Colugo 
is  best  known.  In  construction  it  is  very  similar  to  the 
Flying  Squirrel  and  the  so-called  Flying  Opossum  of 
Australia,  in  which  the  skin  of  the  flanks  is  flattened  and 
extended  to  buoy  up  the  animal  in  the  air  like  a  para- 
chute. When  full  grown  the  Colugo  is  about  the  size  of 
a  cat,  and  in  colour  it  varies  quite  as  much  as  does  the 
latter. 

In  some  respects  the  Flying   Lemur,  or  Cobego,  as  it 
is  also  called,  bears  no  little  resemblance  to  the  members 

of  the  Chiroptera,  the  succeed- 
ing order.  The  flying  membrane 
is  not  at  all  unlike  that  which 
forms  the  wings  of  the  bat ;  and 
the  Colugo  sleeps  head  down- 
wards, suspended  by  its  hind  feet, 
which  is  quite  a  general  feature  of 
the  Bats.  In  its  powers  of  flight, 
however,  the  Colugo  falls  short  of 
the  bat,  since  it  cannot  attain  a 
higher  elevation  than  that  from 
which  it  starts.  In  its  progress 
the  creature's  rate  of  descent  is 
about  one  foot  in  five,  but  it 
possesses  the  power  of  directing 
its  flight  to  any  given  object. 
Mr.  Wallace  says  that  he  saw  a 
Colugo  run  up  a  tree  to  a  height 
of  forty  feet,  from  which  it  took  a  leap  of  seventy  yards 
to  another  trunk,  the  animal  having  clearly  guided  itself 
to  its  goal. 


BONES  OF  HIND  FOOT  OF 
THE  COLUGO. 


Chapter  IV 

ORDER  II.— CHIROPTERA  (BATS) 


General  description  of  the  Chiroptera — Long- 
eared  Bat— Pipistrelle  Bat— Barbastelle  Bat 
— Whiskered  Bat — Horseshoe  Bats — Mouse- 
coloured  Bat — Fruit  Bats — Kalong — Vampire 
Bat— Bat  guano. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Order  II. — Chiroptera  (Bats) 

THE  title  of  the  order  with  which  we  are  about  to  deal 
is  composed  of  two  Greek  words,  the  former  meaning 
a  hand  and  the  latter  a  wing  ;  and  the  Chiroptera  are  there- 
fore '  hand-winged '  animals.  The  early  naturalists  often 
experienced  difficulty  in  classifying  various  animals,  but 
none  caused  more  controversy  than  these  strange,  weirdly- 
formed  creatures.  Because  they  could  fly  some  assigned 
the  Bats  to  a  position  among  the  birds,  while  others  claimed 
that  they  were  quadrupeds  ;  but  modern  investigations  have 
proved  them  to  be  mammals,  clearly  separated  from  any 
other  group  of  animals. 

'  Flittermouse '  was  a  common  old  English  synonym  for 
the  Bat,  and  the  Icelanders  gave  it  the  very  expressive  title 
'  Leather-flapper.'  Most  Bats  are  very  mouse-like  in  appear- 
ance. 

Expressed  in  simple  language,  a  Bat  is  a  mammal  pro- 
vided with  true  wings,  with  which  it  is  able  not  merely  to 
propel  itself  through  the  air  for  a  longer  or  a  shorter 
distance,  but  to  fly  like  a  bird  by  beating  the  air  with  its 
anterior  members.  At  the  end  of  the  Anthropoidea  was 
described  the  Colugo,  which  in  common  with  the  Flying 
Squirrel  and  the  Flying  Phalanger  has  the  skin  of  the  flanks 
extended  in  a  manner  capable  of  sustaining  the  animals, 
very  much  in  the  manner  of  a  parachute,  in  an  extended 
leap  through  the  air.  But  Bats  possess  the  power  of  true 
flight  :  they  move  through  the  air  with  ease,  and  in  pursuit 
of  their  insect-prey  wheel  and  double  and  circle  about 


79 


8o  BATS 

with  a  nimbleness  that  the  human  eye  can  only  follow  with 
difficulty. 

The  accompanying  illustration  of  the  skeleton  of  a  Bat, 
together  with  the  figures  in  Coloured  Plate  IV.,  showing 
open  and  closed  wings,  will  assist  to  make  plain  the  detailed 
description  of  the  chief  points  of  its  structure. 

Most  of  the  Bats  possess  a  full  complement  of  teeth,  the 
four  canines  being  large  and  sharp ;  the  incisors  vary  in 
number,  and  still  more  in  their  proximity  to  each  other. 
Comparing  the  bones  of  a  Bat's  wing  with  the  human  hand 
and  arm,  we  are  at  once  struck  by  their  exaggerated  length 
for  an  animal  that  is  often  only  one  and  a  half  inches  long, 


SKELETON  OF  THE  MOUSE-COLOURED  BAT. 

and  only  in  a  few  species  exceeds  in  size  a  full-grown  rat. 
The  most  elongated  bones  are  those  of  the  hand,  a  feature 
which  is  far  more  marked  than  in  the  case  of  the  fingers. 
The  fingers  cannot  be  closed  for  grasping,  and  except  the 
action  of  beating  they  are  capable  of  movement  only  to 
open  the  wing,  or  to  fold  it  up  against  the  side  of  the 
body. 

Being  a  flying  mammal,  the  body  must  necessarily  be 
designed  for  lightness,  and  to  this  end  the  bones  are  not 
filled  with  marrow,  but  with  air.  The  ribs  are  flattened. 
There  is  considerable  solidity  in  the  shoulder  girdle,  where 
the  greatest  strength  is  required,  and  here  are  attached  the 
great  muscles  which  operate  the  wings.  The  thorax  is 


FLYING  MAMMALS  81 

rather  capacious,  to  allow  room  for  the  large  heart  and 
lungs ;  and  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  is  keeled  like  that 
of  a  bird  to  supply  more  surface  for  the  attachment  of  still 
further  wing  muscles. 

Upon  this  light  and  airy  framework  is  stretched  a  flexible, 
leathery,  nearly  hairless  membrane,  which  is  really  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  skin  of  the  mouse-like  body.  Enveloping 
all  the  bones  of  the  arms  and  hands,  it  extends  to  the  hind 
legs,  and  in  some  cases  includes  the  tail,  being  further  sup- 
ported by  attachment  to  the  heels.  It  is  by  means  of  this 
rudder-like  tail,  similar  to  that  of  a  bird,  that  the  Bat  is  able 
to  make  its  rapid  evolutions. 

There  are  two  groups  of  Bats ;  the  insectivorous 
includes  all  those  of  Europe  and  most  of  those  of  America, 
as  well  as  portions  of  Asia  and  Africa  ;  the  frugivorous  are 
chiefly  found  in  the  South-east  of  Asia.  The  tail  of  the 
animal  differs  according  to  the  group.  Fruit-eating  Bats 
have  no  need  for  the  particularly  rapid  movements  so 
desirable  in  the  chase  of  insects  upon  the  wing,  and  conse- 
quently they  usually  possess  no  tail  membrane,  which  in 
Bats  generally  is  long  or  short  or  absent  altogether,  according 
to  the  habits.  Where  the  tail  ends  in  a  hard  tip  it  bears 
more  than  a  slight  analogy  to  the  prehensile  tail  of  a  monkey, 
and  renders  some  assistance  in  terrestrial  locomotion. 

The  short  thumb  is  never  inclosed  in  the  wing  membrane 
and  renders  no  aid  in  flight,  but  is  furnished  with  a  strong 
curved  claw,  by  means  of  which  the  Bat  can  suspend  itself 
head  downwards  when  it  wishes  to  rest. 

The  hind  limbs  terminate  in  perfectly  formed  feet,  similar 
to  those  of  ordinary  small  quadrupeds,  which  with  the  thumbs 
of  the  anterior  limbs,  and  in  some  cases  the  hard-tipped  tail, 
are  used  in  creeping  and  climbing.  The  Bat  cannot  walk 
along  the  ground  with  facility,  awkwardly  jerking  forward 
first  one  side  of  the  body  and  then  the  other  ;  but  it  can 
run  with  considerable  celerity.  It  is  a  common  but  quite 
erroneous  notion  that  Bats  cannot  easily  rise  from  the 
ground,  but  must  throw  themselves  into  the  air  from  an 
elevation.  Most  species  can  swim  if  necessity  compel  them, 
but  they  have  no  liking  for  water. 

Another  common  error  is    expressed  in  the  simile  '  as 

7 


82  BATS 

blind  as  a  Bat/  for  all  species  possess  very  efficient  eyes, 
though  they  are  small  and  almost  hidden  in  the  soft  fur. 
For  the  size  of  the  animal  the  mouth  is  rather  large,  with  a 
full  complement  of  sharp  teeth.  In  all  cases  the  ears  are 
large,  but  in  some  Bats  they  develop  into  an  expansive 
membrane  that  can  be  folded  up  very  much  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  wings.  Not  a  few  species  have  remarkable 
membraneous  appendages  on  the  nose,  sometimes  quite 
complex  in  construction,  giving  the  Bat  an  extraordinary 
appearance.  It  is  supposed  that  the  ear  and  nose  organs  are 
of  more  utility  than  merely  to  catch  sound  and  to  smell,  and 
that  they  are  intimately  related  to  the  animal's  remarkable 
sense  of  touch,  which  is  carried  to  a  degree  of  delicacy  quite 
unknown  in  other  creatures.  The  ear  and  nose  and  wing 
membranes  are  little  less  than  a  mass  of  blood-vessels  and 
the  finest  nerves,  affording  a  sensitive  surface  that  assists  the 
Bat  to  perceive  the  nearness  of  objects. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Bat  can  perform  the  most  rapid 
and  baffling  movements  in  the  dark  among  buildings  and 
trees,  even  going  to  the  length  of  wheeling  and  doubling 
through  the  branches.  Spallanzini,  about  the  year  1775, 
tested  the  extreme  sensitiveness  of  the  exposed  membranes 
and  their  ability  to  sense  objects  without  utilising  sight  or 
actual  contact.  He  sealed  up  the  Bats'  eyes,  temporarily 
blinding  them,  and  then  set  them  free  in  a  chamber  in 
which  were  suspended  dangling  strings  and  cloths  per- 
forated with  holes  large  enough  to  permit  a  Bat  to  pass 
through.  In  their  flight  they  avoided  all  these  obstacles, 
passing  through  the  holes,  turning  corners,  and  finding 
crannies  for  concealment  or  escape.  They  gave  abundant 
proof  that  the  eyes  render  quite  unimportant  assistance  in 
the  creature's  nocturnal  evolutions.  The  closing  of  the  ears 
seemed  to  be  felt  more  than  the  loss  of  sight,  though  it 
never  amounted  to  embarrassment.  Altogether  the  experi- 
ments practically  proved  that  the  Bat  is  possessed  of  powers 
that  almost,  if  not  quite,  amount  to  a  sixth  sense. 

Bats  are  distributed  over  nearly  all  the  world,  being 
completely  absent  only  in  the  coldest  regions.  They  are 
most  numerous  and  attain  their  greatest  size  in  the  Eastern 
tropics.  A  few  species  live  chiefly  in  pairs,  but  more 


THE  LONG-EARED   BAT  83 

often  they  are  gregarious,  living  in  enormous  companies, 
rivalled  in  point  of  numbers  only  by  the  great  flocks  of  sea- 
birds  which  resort  to  certain  localities  in  the  nesting  season. 

They  generally  spend  the  day  in  sleep,  hanging  head 
downwards  by  the  claws  of  their  hind  feet  in  caves,  hollows 
of  trees,  and,  in  fact,  any  dark  recess ;  in  Temperate  regions 
they  are  especially  fond  of  taking  cover  under  roofs  or  in 
the  corners  and  crevices  of  deserted  and  ruined  buildings. 
Nocturnal  in  habit,  they  seldom  emerge  from  their  hiding- 
places  until  at  least  twilight,  although  the  rule  is  not  without 
exception.  On  the  approach  of  cold  weather  the  creatures 
hibernate  in  some  place  likely  to  allow  them  to  remain  safe 
from  molestation.  It  is  stated  that  some  of  the  Canadian 
Bats  migrate  southwards  to  avoid  the  long  and  severe 
winters. 

There  are  over  a  hundred  and  thirty  known  species  of  Bat ; 
probably  there  are  many  more,  but  their  main  charac- 
teristics are  so  similar  that  a  description  of  a  few  of  the  best 
known  will  serve  for  the  whole.  In  the  British  Isles  there 
are  more  than  a  dozen  species,  all  of  which  are  among  the 
smallest  of  their  kind,  and  all  are  insectivorous. 


LONG-EARED  BAT  (Plecdtus  auritus). 
Coloured  Plate  IV.  Fig.  3. 

The  Long-eared  Bat,  whose  generic  and  specific  names 
signify  folded  ears  and  long-ears  respectively,  is  an  excellent 
example,  though  not  the  commonest,  of  our  British  Bats. 
It  is  found  in  Europe,  North  Africa,  and  in  Central  and 
Western  Asia.  Even  including  the  tail  it  is  only  about  four 
inches  in  length,  with  a  wing  spread  of  thirteen  or  fourteen 
inches.  It  is  the  most  pleasing  of  our  native  Bats 
owing  to  the  transparency  and  beauty  of  its  ears,  which  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  head  are  exceptionally  large 
(Plate  VII.  Fig.  3).  They  are  exceedingly  mobile,  moving 
backwards  and  forwards  as  the  animal  listens  intently  to 
any  sound,  or  they  gracefully  fold  up  when  their  owner 
wishes  to  sleep.  The  ears  are  peculiar  in  that  they  possess 
a  tragus,  or  inner  lobe.  It  really  looks  as  if  the  animal  has 


84  BATS 

four  ears,  two  large  and  two  small,  and  when  the  Bat  is 
asleep  and  the  ears  are  folded,  only  the  tragus  is  visible, 
giving  the  Bat  an  altogether  different  appearance  to  that 
which  is  presented  when  it  is  awake.  When  on  the  wing 
most  insectivorous  Bats  give  vent  to  short  sharp  squeaks, 
and  the  voice  of  the  Long-Eared  Bat  is  particularly  shrill 
and  high-pitched. 

All  British  Bats  feed  wholly  on  flies  and  other  winged 
insects,  gnats  and  midges  in  particular  being  consumed  in 
great  quantities  nightly.  If  a  Long-eared  Bat  be  kept  in 
captivity  it  will  eat  thirty  or  forty  bluebottles  in  the  course 
of  the  day,  and  its  appetite  is  so  enormous  that  no  matter 
what  number  of  flies  are  placed  within  its  reach  at  night 
they  will  all  have  disappeared  by  morning. 

Living  exclusively  upon  insects,  with  the  approach  of 
winter  the  Bat  finds  its  supplies  of  food  almost,  if  not  quite 
entirely,  cut  off.  When  various  insect-eating  birds  are  faced 
by  the  same  problem,  they  solve  it  by  migrating  to  warmer 
climates  where  insects  abound  all  the  year  round.  But  the 
Channel  debars  the  Bat  travelling  further  southwards, 
causing  it  to  take  advantage  of  a  peculiar  faculty  called 
hibernation.  The  Bat  retires  to  some  dark  retreat  where 
quiet  and  some  degree  of  warmth  are  attainable  ;  and  there 
it  sinks  into  a  condition  that  appears  to  be  intermediate 
between  sleep  and  death,  in  which  the  circulation  is  exceed- 
ingly languid,  not  more  than  one  heart  beat  per  second,  and 
there  is  a  total  cessation  of  respiration  and  digestion. 
During  a  torpor  that  seldom  lasts  less  than  three  months, 
and  in  some  cases  nearly  twice  as  long,  the  creature 
would  perish  of  starvation,  but  for  a  wise  provision  of 
Nature  which  insures  that  just  before  it  retires  the  Bat 
becomes  very  fat,  of  which  there  is  sufficient  to  make 
good  the  loss  of  tissue  that  even  the  very  slow  circulation 
necessarily  entails. 

British  Bats  in  particular  are  useful  as  one  of  Nature's 
checks,  reducing  the  numbers  of  the  insect  world  in  the  air 
just  as  the  Insectivora  do  upon  the  earth.  Their  odour  is 
always  more  or  less  disagreeable,  and  their  flesh  is  of  no 
utility  for  food.  Stoats  and  owls  catch  and  feed  upon  the 
creatures,  but  a  dog  will  rarely  take  one  up  in  its  mouth. 


VARIOUS  BRITISH   BATS  85 

PIPISTEELLE  BAT  ( Vesperugo  pipistrellus). 
Coloured  Plate  IV.  Fig.  2. 

The  Pipistrelle  Bat  is  by  far  the  commonest  in  the  British 
Isles,  being  more  frequently  in  evidence,  if  only  because  it 
hibernates  for  only  three  months  of  the  year.  It  is  also  less 
strictly  nocturnal  in  its  habits  than  some  of  its  kind,  for  it 
may  sometimes  be  seen  indulging  in  a  few  fly-catching 
flights  in  the  middle  of  the  day  during  brilliant  sunlight.  It 
is  not  a  rarity,  though  unusual,  for  it  to  appear  at  mid-day 
even  in  winter,  urged  probably  by  hunger  to  hunt  for  what 
must  assuredly  prove  a  very  scanty  meal. 

The  Pipistrelle  is  perhaps  more  like  a  mouse  than  almost 
any  other  species.  In  size  it  is  about  the  equal  of  the  tiny 
quadruped,  and  its  body  is  covered  with  fur  similar  in 
texture  and  in  colour,  with  the  addition  of  a  tinge  of  red. 
Its  ears  almost  exactly  resemble  those  of  a  mouse. 

Other  British  Bats  are  less  known  except  in  the  localities 
they  frequent.  The  Barbastelle  Bat  (Synotus  barbastellus), 
Plate  VI.  Fig.  2,  is  very  largely  restricted  to  the  South- 
eastern counties.  It  differs  prominently  from  some  of  the 
tribe  in  the  possession  of  tufts  of  black  bristles — whiskers  on 
the  cheeks  of  its  black  face.  The  Whiskered  Bat  (Vespertilio 
mystacinus),  met  with  in  Hampshire  and  adjacent  counties, 
has  its  face  thickly  overgrown  with  fur.  Reference  has 
been  made  to  the  membraneous  expansion  of  the  nose  in 
some  species.  The  Greater  Horseshoe  Bat  (Plate  VII. 
Fig.  2)  and  the  Lesser  Horseshoe  Bat  have  a  nose  leaf  in  the 
form  of  a  horseshoe,  but  otherwise  their  appearance  and 
their  general  habits  call  for  no  further  mention. 

MOUSE-COLOURED  BAT  (Vespertilio  murinus}. 
Coloured  Plate  IV.  Fig.  4. 

The  Mouse-Coloured  Bat  is  two  inches  in  length, 
exclusive  of  the  tail,  and  is  the  largest  Bat  in  Central 
Europe.  It  is  a  short-eared  species,  which  are  far  more 


86  BATS 

numerous  than  the  long-eared  ones.  The  particular  species 
under  notice  is  as  rare  in  England  as  it  is  common  on  the 
Continent,  where  it  frequents  buildings,  but  not  trees,  In 
respect  of  hibernation  it  retires  later  and  reappears  earlier 
than  its  long-eared  relatives.  Its  habitat  is  not  confined 
to  Europe,  but  includes  North  Africa  and  extends  into 
Central  Asia  as  far  as  the  Himalayas. 

THE  FRUIT  BATS. 

The  genus  Pteropus  (winged-foot)  includes  the  largest 
of  the  Chiroptera,  of  which  the  chief  are  two  well-known 
species  :  the  Collared  Fruit  Bat  (Pteropus  collaris)  and  the 
Kalong  (Pteropus  edulis\  Plate  VI.  Fig.  i.  Throughout  the 
East  they  are  often  called  Flying  Foxes  by  the  European 
residents. 

The  Kalong  of  Java — and  the  name  is  popularly  applied 
indiscriminately  to  various  species — in  its  maturity  attains  a 
size  equal  to  that  of  a  rook.  A  long  pointed  muzzle  gives 
the  head  very  much  the  appearance  of  a  dog  or  a  fox  ; 
and  the  resemblance  is  increased  by  the  rather  full  eyes, 
markedly  cunning  in  expression  (Plate  VII.  Fig.  4).  The 
animal  possesses  no  tail,  and  the  second  finger  is  usually 
provided  with  a  claw.  Its  wings  when  spread  are  nearly 
five  feet  from  tip  to  tip  ;  and  notwithstanding  its  size  the 
creature  flaps  through  the  air  without  the  least  audible  noise. 
It  is  a  wise  arrangement  of  the  Creator  that  gives  muffled 
wings  to  all  night-flying  creatures,  whether  birds,  moths, 
or  bats. 

Fruit  Bats  form  immense  colonies  that  work  much 
damage  to  soft-fruit  plantations,  such  as  bananas,  figs,  &c. 
The  Kalong  in  captivity  will  eat  apples,  pears,  mice, 
blackbeetles,  and  bits  of  raw  meat.  In  the  jungle  it  adds 
lizards  and  small  birds  to  its  fruit  menu.  But  there  is  some 
compensation  to  the  planters  in  the  fact  that  these  frugi- 
vorous  Bats  are  themselves  tolerably  good  to  eat. 

Unlike  most  other  species,  the  Fruit  Bats  are  not  incom- 
moded by  light ;  instead  of  seeking  dark  recesses  they 
suspend  themselves  from  the  tops  of  tall  trees.  When 
sleeping  they  hang  by  one  foot,  tucking  the  other  foot  and 


PLATE  VI. 


i.     KALOXG.  2.     BARBASTELLE    BAT    WALKING. 

(See  page  85) 


PLATE  VII. 


HEADS    OF:    i.    VAMPIRE    BAT.      2.     GREATER    HORSESHOE    BAT. 
3.     LONG-EARED    BAT.       4.     KALONG    (Natural  size). 


THE  VAMPIRE  BAT  87 

leg  under  the  wing.  The  goose  sleeps  upon  one  leg  lest 
upon  some  frosty  night  it  may  get  frozen  hard  and  fast  to 
the  ice.  But  why  these  great  bats  hang  by  one  leg  nobody 
appears  able  to  explain. 


VAMPIRE  BAT  (Phyllostoma  spectrum). 
Coloured   Plate  IV.  Fig.  i. 

The  ancients  in  their  highly  imaginative  mythology  made 
use  of  fabulous  creatures,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  beast 
and  bird.  The  three  Harpies,  the  daughters  of  Neptune 
and  Terra,  each  possessed  the  face  of  a  woman,  the  body  of 
a  vulture,  and  fingers  armed  with  sharp  claws.  They  emitted 
an  offensive  smell  and  spoilt  whatever  they  touched  by 
their  filth  ;  and  Virgil  relates  how  these  fearsome  creatures 
appeared  to  affright  the  guests  from  a  great  feast. 

It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  the  large  fruit-eating  Bats 
gave  rise  to  some  of  these  objects  of  superstitious  dread  ; 
for  as  they  silently  flit  about  they  are  indeed  suggestive  of 
everything  that  is  hideous,  foul,  and  evil.  There  was  also 
an  ancient  belief  in  vampires,  nocturnal  demons  that  were 
supposed  to  eat  out  the  hearts  and  souls  and  suck  the  blood 
of  their  victims.  Although  it  could  not  possibly  have  been 
known  to  the  ancients,  there  is  a  blood-sucking  bat  in  South 
America.  It  belongs  to  the  genus  Phyllostoma  (Leaf- 
mouth)  or  Spectre  Bats,  and  with  a  wing-spread  of  two  and 
a  half  feet  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  family. 

The  Vampire  Bat  possesses  a  cloven  leaf-shaped  nose 
membrane,  but  is  without  a  tail.  There  appears  to  be  little 
doubt  that  in  the  main  it  is  a  fruit  eater  ;  but  it  is  equally 
certain  that  there  are  closely  allied  genera  that  are  in  the  habit 
of  sucking  blood  from  the  bodies  of  the  larger  mammals, 
not  excluding  man,  while  the  victim  is  asleep.  The  Vampire's 
teeth  (Plate  VII.  Fig.  i)  are  in  strict  keeping  with  such 
a  propensity,  consisting  of  two  projecting  incisors  with 
lancet-shaped  canines,  all  terminating  in  sharp  points,  and 
so  placed  as  to  make  a  triple  puncture  like  the  bite  of  a 
leech.  In  some  regions  it  is  dangerous  to  sleep  uncovered. 
A  traveller,  speaking  from  experience,  says  the  animal  will 


88  BATS 

attack  any  person  who  is  in  a  sound  slumber,  biting  a  piece 
out  of  the  great  toe  no  larger  than  a  pinhead.  The  wound 
is  not  sufficiently  painful  to  awaken  the  sleeper,  and  through 
the  tiny  orifice  the  bat  will  continue  to  suck  blood  until  it  is 
scarcely  able  to  fly.  Domestic  animals  in  some  parts  of 
South  America  are  specially  liable  to  attack,  and  for  that 
reason  the  rearing  of  calves  in  particular  is  a  difficult  matter. 
Horses  are  often  bitten  on  the  withers,  and  if  an  animal 
does  not  suffer  much  from  loss  of  blood,  the  pressure  of  a 
saddle  upon  the  wound  will  cause  troublesome  inflamma- 
tion. It  must  be  admitted  that  there  are  few  reliable 
accounts  of  a  Bat  having  been  caught  while  in  the  act 
of  bloodsucking. 

The  Chiroptera  render  man  good  service  in  their  constant 
war  upon  the  insect  world,  and  a  few  species  are  utilised  as 
food  ;  but  where  Bats  exist  in  very  great  numbers  they 
are  sometimes  a  source  of  considerable  wealth.  Guano,  the 
decomposed  or  fossilised  excrement  of  sea-birds,  is  found 
largely  on  certain  islands  along  the  Pacific  coast  of  South 
America.  Sometimes  the  beds  are  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet  in 
thickness,  and  as  a  fertiliser  the  material  is  of  such  com- 
mercial value  that  Chili  and  Peru  in  1881  went  to  war 
concerning  the  possession  of  some  of  the  guano  islands. 

The  guano  of  Bats  has  been  found  in  large  quantities  in 
caverns  in  France,  Italy,  and  the  Pyrenees  ;  but  probably 
the  largest  guano  caves  are  those  of  San  Antonio  in  Texas. 
By  means  of  a  shaft  entrance  to  the  cave  the  guano  can  be 
dug  out  without  disturbing  the  sleeping  bats,  the  number  of 
which  in  the  largest  cave  is  enormous.  When  evening  comes 
it  is  a  wonderful  sight  to  see  them  issue  forth  from  the 
mouth  of  the  cave  in  a  dark  stream  like  a  moving  cloud 
for  quite  two  hours,  with  a  noise  of  whirring  wings  which 
sounds  like  a  gale  of  wind.  The  sight  is  wonderfully 
interesting,  but  the  stench  from  the  creatures  is  almost 
unbearable.  The  supply  of  guano  is  naturally  not 
inexhaustible.  When  the  guano  has  been  taken  from  a 
cave  it  is  closed  for  a  period  of  four  years,  by  which  time 
there  is  another  deposit  well  worth  removal. 


Plate  IV. 


8.  Elephant  Shrew 


9.  Hedgehog 


Chapter  V 

ORDER  III.— INSECTIVORA  (INSECT 
EATERS) 


General     description     of     the     Insectivora  — 
Hedgehog— Mole  — Common    Shrew  —  Pigmy 
Shrew  —  Water    Shrew  —  Elephant    Shrew  — 
Tanrec— Tana  or  Tree  Shrew— Potamogale. 


CHAPTER  V 

Order    HI. — Insectivora 
(Insect-Eaters) 

THE  animals  comprised  in  the  Insectivora  are,  as  the 
name  implies,  insect-eaters.  Their  distinguishing 
characteristic  is  the  teeth,  generally  no  less  than  forty-four 
in  number,  and  among  which  there  are  none  with  flattened 
surfaces.  Even  the  molars  are  dotted  with  conical  points, 
which  are  admirably  adapted  to  crushing  the  hard  outer 
coverings  of  some  of  the  insects  upon  which  they  feed. 
Some  members  of  the  order,  however,  have  departed  largely 
from  the  insect  diet,  in  one  case  changing  it  largely  for  fish 
and  in  another  for  worms  ;  while  some  of  them  are  quite 
omnivorous. 

The  Insectivores  have  short  legs  fitted  with  five  toes 
each,  and  in  running  they  place  the  entire  sole  on  the 
ground.  They  are  usually  terrestrial,  a  few  only  are  tree- 
climbers.  Most  of  them  are  nocturnal  and  largely  lead  a 
subterranean  life  ;  during  the  winter  in  cold  countries  they 
enter  into  a  more  or  less  torpid  state. 

The  Insectivora  are  divided  into  at  least  nine  families, 
three  of  which,  the  Hedgehog,  Mole,  and  Shrews,  are  well 
represented  in  our  own  country. 

FAMILY  ERINACEID^E 

HEDGEHOG-  (Erinaceus  europ&us). 
Coloured  Plate  IV.  Fig.  9. 

The  Hedgehog  is  a  native  of  most  parts  of  Europe,  the 
temperate  parts  of  Asia  from  the  Urals  to  the  Pacific, 

91 


92  INSECT-EATERS 

and  Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  In  our  own  country  it  is 
often  called  the  Urchin,  Furze-pig,  and  Hedge-pig.  In 
appearance  it  is  very  distinctive,  having  its  body  covered 
with  prickly  spines  instead  of  hair.  The  spines  are  really 
set  in  ball-and-socket  joints,  causing  them  to  be  very 
elastic,  so  that  even  a  blow  or  a  fall  from  a  great  height  will 
not  drive  them  into  the  animal's  own  body. 

The  Hedgehog  is  about  ten  inches  in  length  without  its 
tail  of  another  inch.  Its  limbs  are  short,  but  it  can  run 
swiftly.  It  has  a  long  snout  with  a  loose  flap  bordering 
each  of  the  nostrils,  which  are  of  good  service  when  the 

creature  is 
grubbing.  The 
face  is  covered 
with  strong, 
^  coarse  hair,  out 
of  which  peer 
bright,  clear 
eyes  of  bluish 

SKELETON   OF  THE  HEDGEHOG.  greV>          ^n     1^S 

very  full  com- 
plement of  teeth  there  are  three  pairs  of  incisors  in  the 
upper  jaw,  the  inner  pair  of  which  are  long  and  tusk-like. 
Considering  its  size,  the  jaws  and  teeth  of  the  Hedgehog 
are  very  powerful ;  it  can  splinter  the  bone  of  a  mutton 
chop  with  comparative  ease. 

No  part  of  the  anatomy  of  the  Hedgehog  is  more  interest- 
ing than  the  powerful  muscle  of  the  back,  lying  under 
the  skin,  and  scientifically  termed  the  panniculus  carnosus, 
i.e.,  the  '  fleshy  rag.'  This  is  the  muscle  which  enables  a 
dog  to  shake  itself  dry  when  it  leaves  the  water.  The  roots 
of  the  bristles  pass  through  the  skin  sufficiently  far  to 
connect  them  with  the  muscle,  and  when  it  is  contracted 
the  bristles  are  erected.  The  same  muscle  enables  the 
animal  to  roll  itself  into  a  ball  when  alarmed,  and  to 
retain  that  position  so  firmly  that  it  cannot  be  drawn 
straight  by  force  alone.  With  the  tender  under  parts  thus 
protected,  there  is  presented  to  its  enemies  what  amounts 
to  a  terrible  coat  of  mail. 

The  Hedgehog  is  not  limited  to  insect  food.     It  preys  on 


THE   HEDGEHOG  93 

reptiles,  small  quadrupeds,  and  even  feathered  creatures 
when  it  can  catch  them.  Fallen  nuts  and  soft  fruits  are 
readily  eaten  ;  while  in  captivity  it  will  not  refuse  soaked 
bread,  cooked  vegetables,  and  flesh,  raw  or  roasted. 

Though  fond  of  eggs  and  milk,  there  is  no  truth  in  the 
quite  common  belief  that  the  Hedgehog  helps  itself  to  the 
warm  fluid  direct  from  the  teats  of  cows  lying  in  the  fields. 
Equally  fanciful  is  the  statement  that  the  animal  climbs 
trees,  returning  to  the  ground  with  its  spoils  impaled  upon 
the  points  of  its  spines.  If  in  its  nocturnal  rambles  it 
should  come  across  eggs  in  a  ground  nest,  the  Hedgehog 
will  make  short  work  of  them.  Grasping  an  egg  between 
its  forefeet,  the  animal  makes  a  hole  in  the  end  of  it  just  big 
enough  to  permit  the  insertion  of  its  tongue,  and  the 
contents  will  be  licked  out  without  the  slightest  waste. 

The  manner  in  which  the  Hedgehog  attacks  a  viper  is  as 
interesting  as  it  is  effective.  Creeping  quietly  up  to  the 
reptile,  it  seizes  it  by  the  tail  with  its  teeth,  and  in  a  flash  rolls 
itself  up  into  a  ball.  Lashing  itself  into  a  fury,  the  viper 
makes  terrific  darts  at  its  enemy,  who  simply  holds  on  to 
the  tail,  allowing  the  reptile  to  cut  its  head  almost  to  pieces 
against  the  remorseless  spikes.  When  at  length  the  viper  is 
overcome,  the  victor  passes  it  gradually  through  its  jaws, 
cracking  the  bones  till  it  is  quite  limp,  and  then,  com- 
mencing at  the  tail,  proceeds  to  devour  it. 

The  Hedgehog  has  few  natural  enemies ;  a  dog,  for 
example,  will  think  twice  before  testing  the  quality  of  the 
spines  after  it  has  had  one  painful  experience.  The  stoat 
and  the  fox  overcome  it ;  the  latter,  it  is  said,  rolls  the 
prickly  ball  into  water,  which  causes  the  Hedgehog  to  relax 
its  muscles  to  escape  from  drowning ;  and  that  action  is  the 
opportunity  for  which  the  artful  fox  is  in  readiness. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  Hedgehog  pairs  for  life. 
A  nest  of  dead  leaves  and  moss  is  made  in  a  thicket,  the 
leaves  woven  into  a  thatch  to  keep  out  the  spring  showers. 
The  young  ones,  usually  three  or  four  in  number,  are  not 
only  born  blind,  as  is  the  case  with  many  animals,  but  their 
ears  are  closed,  which  is  very  unusual.  The  quills  are  white 
and  flexible,  leading  one  almost  to  doubt  whether  the  little 
creatures  are  not  young  birds. 


94  INSECT-EATERS 

No  British  mammal  hibernates  more  thoroughly  than  the 
Hedgehog  ;  and  it  provides  not  the  slightest  store  upon 
which  to  dine  during  any  unexpected  period  of  wakeful- 
ness.  That  the  creature  is  occasionally  seen  abroad  in 
the  winter  months  is  no  argument  against  its  hibernation. 
Indeed,  it  is  a  fact  that  extreme  cold  frequently  arouses 
hibernating  animals  from  their  torpidity  ;  and,  once  roused 
from  any  cause,  it  is  quite  likely  that  the  hungry  Hedgehog 
will  search  about  for  food  to  make  a  scanty  meal  before 
resuming  its  interrupted  slumber. 

If  we  forgive  it  a  few  pheasant  and  partridge  eggs,  the 
Hedgehog  may  be  regarded  as  a  useful  animal ;  and  it  is 
often  utilised  to  clear  houses  of  various  noxious  beetles. 
The  animal  is  but  little  used  for  food.  Gipsies  are  said 
to  be  rather  fond  of  it,  enveloping  it  in  well-kneaded 
clay  and  then  thrusting  it  into  the  heart  of  a  fire.  When 
the  cooking  is  complete  the  skin  and  prickles  come  away 
with  the  clay. 


FAMILY   TALPID^. 

MOLE  (Talpa  europceus). 
Coloured  Plate  IV.  Fig.  5. 

The  common  Mole  is  the  best  example  of  the  family 
Talpidae,  all  of  which  chiefly  live  underground.  It  is 
general  over  all  Central  Europe  and  Asia,  well  known  in 
England  and  Scotland,  but  is  totally  absent  from  Ireland. 
A  consideration  of  its  build  will  show  how  perfectly  the 
creature  is  adapted  to  its  mode  of  life  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Seldom  exceeding  eight  inches  in  length, 
including  the  tail,  the  body  is  cylindrical  in  form.  The 
head  is  large  ;  the  snout  is  slender,  strong,  and  sinewy  ;  and 
there  is  an  absence  of  neck,  which  would  be  a  weakness  in 
the  animal,  just  as  it  would  be  in  the  case  of  a  boring  tool. 

The  fore  legs,  terminating  in  five  long  and  strong  claws, 
are  short ;  while  the  feet  are  broad  and  spadelike,  and, 
considering  their  size,  are  extremely  strong.  They  are 
turned  outwards,  with  back-turned  claws,  to  enable  the 


THE   MOLE 


95 


animal  not  only  to  dig,  but  to  throw  the  soil  behind  it, 
which  it  does  with  incredible  speed.  When  it  commences 
to  burrow,  the  Mole  seems  literally  to  sink  into  the  ground. 
The  hinder  limbs  do  not  possess  the  strength  of  the  fore- 
feet, and  are  used  only  for  progression. 

In  the  Mole  it  is  the  canine  teeth  that  are  most  promi- 
nent, instead  of  the  incisors,  as  in  the  hedgehog.  It  is  a 
very  popular  belief  that  it  possesses  no  eyes.  Examination 
shows  that  this  is  a  mistake  ;  but  the  eyes  are  exceedingly 
small,  and  retracted  beneath  the  fur,  well  out  of  danger 
from  particles  of  earth  as  it  is  flung  up  by  the  forepaws. 
Though  it  has  no  external  ears,  which  would  be  in  the  way, 


SKELETON  OF  THE  MOLE. 

its  internal  ones  are  particularly  acute,  and  its  taste  and 
smell  are  similarly  well  developed. 

The  skin  is  extremely  tough,  upon  which  the  short  hairs 
grow  perpendicularly,  forming  a  close-set,  velvety  fur, 
absolutely  smooth,  whichever  way  it  is  stroked  or  brushed. 
This  peculiarity  provides  that  in  moving  backwards  or 
forwards  in  the  underground  galleries  the  coat  remains 
perfectly  clean  and  free  from  soil.  Though  usually  black 
in  colour,  there  are  exceptions ;  sometimes  the  fur  is 
yellowish  white  or  grey,  and  more  rarely  it  is  all  white. 

The  home  of  the  Mole  is  constructed  with  infinite  care 
and  skill.  The  accompanying  illustration  shows  a  hillock 
of  earth,  supported  by  partitions  or  pillars  at  regular  dis- 
tances. In  this  are  two  circular  galleries,  one  above  the 
other,  with  five  connecting  passages.  The  central  chamber 


96 


INSECT-EATERS 


leads  to  the  upper  gallery  by  three  passages,  while  there  are 
three  times  as  many  runs  in  different  directions  from  the 
lower  one. 

The  hillock  is  beaten  and  pressed  until  it  is  hard  enough 
to  withstand  the  penetration  of  water.  Under  the  central 
arch  is  a  small  mound  which  is  pierced  with  sloping  holes, 
the  entrances  to  hard  and  firm  paths,  twelve  to  fifteen  paces 
in  length,  which  radiate  from  it  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel 
from  the  hub.  Altogether  it  is  a  perfect  maze,  well  calcu- 
lated to  defy  pursuit  even  by  the  weasel. 

Moles  live  in  pairs,  breeding  in  spring  and  sometimes  in 


THE  MOLE'S  FORTRESS  (HORIZONTAL  AND  VERTICAL  SECTIONS). 

autumn,  the  family  of  young  numbering  five  or  six.  The 
female  makes  a  nest  of  dried  leaves  in  the  upper  gallery, 
or  else  constructs  a  fortress  of  her  own.  There  are  always 
fierce  fights  among  the  males  when  they  are  selecting  their 
partners. 

No  animal  works  so  hard  for  its  daily  food  as  the  Mole. 
Its  whole  existence  is  spent  in  constantly  raising  and 
removing  large  quantities  of  earth  by  sheer  force  of  muscle. 
Its  appetite  is  voracious  ;  it  works  like  a  horse,  and  eats 
like  an  elephant  in  proportion  to  its  size.  In  all  its  waking 
moments  it  is  digging  and  delving  and  scurrying  after 


THE  MOLE  97 

worms  in  all  its  galleries  and  tunnels.  Its  digestive  powers 
are  remarkably  rapid,  and  with  heart  and  lungs  and  muscles 
working  at  a  furious  rate,  about  twelve  hours  is  the  limit 
that  it  can  exist  without  food.  The  Mole  lives  chiefly  upon 
earthworms,  which  it  dexterously  skins,  stripping  off  the 
skin  from  end  to  end,  and  pressing  out  the  contents  of  the 
body.  But  the  energetic  digger  does  not  limit  itself  to  a 
diet  of  worms ;  it  preys  upon  frogs,  small  quadrupeds,  and 
birds,  first  tearing  open  the  body  in  its  softer  parts  and 
gorging  itself  with  the  blood.  Unless  there  be  plenty  of 
food  available  tue  Mole  does  not  hesitate  at  cannibalism, 
the  strong  inevitably  devouring  their  weaker  brethren  under 
pressure  of  hunger. 

The  Mole  is  not   popular  with  gardeners  and  farmers, 


FORE   LIMBS  OF  THE  COMMON   MOLE. 


who  view  its  nocturnal  burrowings  in  cultivated  land  with 
marked  disfavour.  It  is  annoying  to  find  prized  plants 
uprooted  or  greensward  rendered  unsightly  by  the  nume- 
rous upheavals  that  mark  the  creature's  tremendous  energy. 
Nevertheless  the  Mole  lays  down  a  system  of  subsoil 
drainage  without  costing  the  farmer  a  penny.  It  is  an 
interesting  historical  fact  that  the  Jacobites  toasted  the  Mole 
because  William  of  Orange  broke  his  collar-bone  in  a  fall 
over  a  mole-hill. 

An  acute  observer  says  that  he  has  traced  a  fresh  tunnel 
nearly  a  hundred  yards  in  length  that  has  been  burrowed  in 
a  single  night.  What  this  furious  footwork  really  means  will 
be  best  understood  by  the  calculation  that  if  a  man  were 
to  do  similar  work  in  proportion  to  his  size,  then  in  one 

8 


98  INSECT-EATERS 

night  he  would  have  to  excavate  a  tunnel  thirty-seven  miles 
long  and  of  a  size  to  allow  him  to  crawl  through  it. 

Thoughtless  people  are  apt  to  pity  the  Mole  for  its  dark 
and  apparently  cheerless  life  ;  but  the  reader,  seeing  what 
infinite  pains  the  Creator  has  taken  to  adapt  every  little 
detail  of  its  structure  to  its  life,  will  be  able  to  understand 
that  the  Mole  is  as  happy  while  burrowing  in  the  dark 
underground  as  is  the  skylark  floating  high  up  in  the  sun- 
shine and  pouring  out  its  joy  in  exulting  song. 

There  is  a  demand  for  the  fur  of  the  Mole,  which  is  the 
finest  of  any  British  animal.  It  is  very  impervious  to  wet, 
and  many  thousands  of  skins  are  used  every  year  for  jackets, 
waistcoats,  purses,  &c.  One  of  the  most  durable  of  textiles, 
a  strong  fustian  that  wears  like  leather,  has  received  the 
name  'moleskin.' 

FAMILY   SORICID^E. 
SHREW  (Sorex  vulgar  is). 

The  Shrews,  of  which  there  are  three  varieties  in  our 
country,  are  commonly  called  Shrew-mice ;  but  though 
in  general  appearance  they  resemble  mice,  their  teeth  in- 
dubitably prove  them  to  belong  to  the  Insectivora. 

The  common  Shrew  is  usually  about  two  inches  and 
three-quarters  in  length,  of  which  quite  half  is  accounted 
for-  by  the  tail.  The  attenuated  snout  is  the  chief  feature 
of  the  head.  The  body  and  the  tail  are  covered  with  fine 
velvety  fur,  reddish  mouse-colour  above  and  grey  beneath. 
The  creature  is  common  nearly  everywhere  in  the  British 
Isles,  except  Ireland.  It  abounds  in  dry  fields,  hedgerows, 
and  gardens.  Grubbing  with  its  long  snout  for  worms  and 
insects,  it  makes  long  runs  just  under  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Insects  are  preferred  to  anything  else,  but  the  little 
creature  will  attack  lizards  and  frogs  and  even  very  small 
birds.  In  spring  there  are  fierce  fights  among  the  males  for 
mates.  The  nest  of  leaves  and  dry  grass  is  made  in  a  hole 
in  a  bank,  in  which  from  five  to  eight  young  ones  are  born 
in  July  or  August. 

During  the  autumn  large  numbers  of  dead  Shrews  are 


THE  WATER  SHREW  99 

found  along  the  hedgerows  and  in  ditches,  without  any 
evident  cause  of  death.  There  is  no  apparent  external 
injury,  and  certainly  they  have  not  met  their  end  by 
weasels,  hawks,  or  owls,  or  other  of  their  natural  enemies, 
or  they  would  have  devoured  them.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  with  the  autumn  there  comes  a  lack  of  food  owing  to 
the  decreasing  insect  life,  and  that  is  the  best  explanation 
that  can  be  given,  and  only  surmise  at  that. 

The  Pigmy  Shrew  (Sorex  minutus),  an  inch  shorter  than 
the  foregoing,  is  the  smallest  of  our  British  mammals. 

It  was  a  common  superstition  in  olden  times  that  the 
merest  contact  with  a  Shrew  inflicted  injury  upon  cattle. 
In  some  villages  a  pollard  ash-tree  was  selected  to  form  the 
'  Shrew  Ash.'  A  hole  was  bored  in  the  trunk,  a  poor  little 
Shrew  was  inclosed  in  it  alive,  and  then  the  hole  was 
plugged  up.  It  was  believed  that  the  twigs  and  branches 
of  the  tree  possessed  curative  qualities  when  applied  to 
animals  suffering  from  the  touch  of  the  Shrew. 

WATER  SHREW  (Sorex  fodiens). 
Coloured  Plate  IV.  Fig.  7. 

Slightly  larger  than  the  common  species,  the  Water  Shrew 
is  chiefly  blackish-brown  in  colour  ;  the  feet  and  under- 
surface  of  the  tail  are  fringed  with  long  white  hairs.  It 
burrows  into  the  banks  of  streams  and  is  very  aquatic  in  its 
habits.  It  possesses  valved  ears,  which  automatically  close 
immediately  the  Shrew  enters  water. 

It  is  interesting  to  watch  the  little  creature  dive  into  clear 
water,  at  the  bottom  of  which  it  is  able  to  remain  a  long 
time.  On  land  the  weasel  preys  upon  it ;  in  the  water  the 
voracious  pike  views  it  as  a  tasty  morsel. 

'Its  swimming/  says  Mr.  Bell,  '  is  principally  effected  by 
the  alternate  action  of  its  hinder  feet,  which  produces  an 
unequal  or  wriggling  motion  ;  it  makes  its  way,  however, 
with  great  velocity.  With  its  belly  flattened,  the  sides,  as 
it  were,  spread  out,  and  the  tail  extended  backwards  as 
a  rudder,  it  forms  a  very  beautiful  and  pleasing  object, 
moving  on  the  calm  surface  of  a  quiet  brook  or  diving, 


ioo  INSECT-EATERS 

in  an  instant,  after  its  food,  its  black  velvety  coat  becoming 
beautifully  silvered  with  the  innumerable  bubbles  of  air  that 
cover  it  when  submerged;  and  on  rising  again  the  fur  is 
observed  to  be  perfectly  dry,  repelling  the  water  as  com- 
pletely as  the  feathers  of  a  water-fowl.' 

FAMILY   MACROSCELIDID^. 

ELEPHANT   SHREW  (Macroscelides  typicus}. 
Coloured  Plate    IV.  Fig.  8. 

The  Elephant  Shrew  is  a  curious  mouse-like  little 
creature  that  takes  its  name  from  the  elephan- 
tine elongation  of  its  nose.  The  whole  length 
of  the  animal  is  five  inches.  The  generic 
name  means  '  long-legged/  the  hind  legs  being 
longer  than  the  fore  limbs  ;  and  the  animal 
moves  in  a  succession  of  leaps  in  biped 
fashion. 

There    are    several    species    of    the    Jumping 
Shrews,  as  they  are  often  called.     Nearly  all  of 
SOLE  OF     them  exist  in  South  Africa,  where  they  burrow 
OF         in  the  ground,  flying  to  their  retreats  the  instant 


are  disturbed.     They  are  insect-eaters,  pick- 

size.)  ing   UP   a   living  amid  the   scantY  herbage  that 
grows   in   the   rocky   regions  where   they   make 
their  homes. 

FAMILY   CENTETID^E. 

TANBEC  (Centetes  ecaudatus). 
Coloured  Plate  IV.  Fig.  6. 

The  animals  of  this  family  are  cousins  to  the  hedgehog, 
for  their  coat  is  softly  haired,  but  mixed  with  bristles  and 
flexible  spines,  which  are  strongest  about  the  neck.  The 
Tanrec  is  not  only  the  best  known  of  the  family,  but  is  the 
largest  of  the  Insectivores.  It  is  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches  in 
length  ;  it  has  no  tail.  Because  of  various  technical  re- 
semblances it  is  certain  that  the  Tanrec  is,  of  all  living 


THE  TANA  101 

mammals,  the  most  nearly  related  to  the  Marsupials  of 
Australia  and  America. 

The  animal  is  very  prolific ;  usually  fifteen  or  sixteen 
young  ones  at  a  birth,  sometimes,  indeed,  as  many  as 
twenty-one.  Madagascar  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Tanrec, 
but  it  is  also  now  found  in  Mauritius  and  Reunion.  For 
six  months  in  the  year — June  to  December — it  goes  to  sleep 
in  a  hole  which  it  has  dug  for  the  purpose.  When  it  retires 
it  is  very  fat,  which  is  just  the  time  that  the  natives  set  out 
to  hunt  for  what  they  regard  as  a  great  delicacy.  Opinions 
differ  concerning  the  flesh,  for  while  some  people  compare 
it  to  sucking-pig,  others  complain  of  its  musky  flavour. 

Owing  to  its  strictly  nocturnal  habits  the  Tanrec  is  not 
an  animal  that  easily  lends  itself  to  observation.  Insects 
and  worms  are  the  staple  items  in  its  diet,  to  which  it  adds 
roots  and  fruits. 

The  Tendrac  (Ericulus  spinosus),  another  member  of  the 
family,  is  often  confounded  with  the  last-named  animal, 
whereas  it  is  a  much  smaller  creature  than  our  common 
hedgehog,  which  it  closely  resembles  in  appearance. 

FAMILY    TUPAIID^E. 

TANA  (Tupaia  tana). 
Coloured  Plate  XIV.  Fig.  5. 

This  animal,  which  at  one  time  was  confounded  with  the 
Squirrels  and  the  Lemurs,  is  purposely  figured  with  the 
Rodents  to  allow  of  easy  comparison  with  the  squirrel. 
The  generic  name  was  derived  by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  who 
first  discovered  the  creature,  from  the  Malay  name  for 
squirrel.  There  are  more  than  a  dozen  species  of  the  Tupaias 
or  Tree  Shrews,  which  are  widely  distributed  between  India 
and  the  Philippines.  The  family  belongs  to  the  group  of 
animals  more  commonly  known  as  the  Bangsrings.  Though 
the  Tana  is  one  of  the  larger  species,  its  body  is  only  eight 
or  nine  inches  in  length  and  covered  with  rather  long,  soft, 
glistening,  reddish-brown  hair.  The  tail  is  long  and  bushy, 
and  the  hair  is  arranged  very  much  in  two  rows,  something 
like  the  feathers  of  an  arrow-shaft.  The  animal  greatly 
resembles  the  squirrel,  not  only  in  appearance,  but  also  in 


102  INSECT-EATERS 

its  sprightliness  and  activity.     The  whole  of   the  family 
chiefly  inhabit  trees,  and  they  feed  on  fruits  and  insects. 

The  animal  figured  on  the  plate  is  the  Bornean  Tree 
Shrew.  In  eating  its  food  it  will  hold  it  in  its  fore  paws 
exactly  like  a  squirrel.  It  obtains  insects  usually  from  trees, 
but  sometimes  is  seen  on  the  ground  searching  for  food, 
very  much  in  the  same  manner  as  the  common  Shrews. 
The  Madras  Tree  Shrew  (Tupaia  ellioti),  which  is  abundant 
in  Peninsular  India,  at  certain  periods  of  the  year  is  found 
dead  in  considerable  numbers,  which  recalls  to  mind  the 
strange  fate  that  befalls  the  English  Shrew  referred  to  earlier 
in  the  chapter. 

FAMILY   POTAMOGALID^E. 
POTAMOGALE  (Potamogale  velox). 

The  Potamogale,  or  West  African  River  Shrew,  is  supposed 
to  be  nearly  related  to  the  Tanrecs,  but  has  so  few  points 
in  common  with  other  Insectivores,  that  it  has  to  form  a 
distinct  family  in  itself.  It  is  about  ten  or  eleven  inches  in 
length  from  the  tip  of  its  broad  and  bristled  muzzle  to  the 
root  of  its  tail,  which  is  long  and  very  compressed,  except 
where  it  almost  imperceptibly  joins  the  body.  The  lithe, 
otter-like  form,  valved  nostrils,  and  the  fine  soft  fur  with 
an  outer  covering  of  long  hairs,  in  themselves  are  sufficient 
to  suggest  aquatic  habits.  The  toes  are  not  webbed,  but 
the  tail  appears  likely  to  provide  excellent  motive  power. 

The  Potamogale  was  discovered  in  West  Africa  by  Du 
Chaillu,  who  says  :  *  It  is  found  along  the  watercourses  of 
limpid  and  clear  streams,  where  fish  are  abundant.  It  hides 
under  rocks  along  these  streams,  lying  in  wait  for  fish.  It 
swims  through  the  water  with  a  rapidity  which  astonished 
me;  before  the  fish  has  time  to  move  it  is  caught.  On 
account  of  the  rapidity  of  its  movements,  I  have  given  it 
the  specific  name  of  velox.  The  animal  returns  to  land 
with  its  prey  almost  as  rapidly  as  it  started  from  its  place 
of  concealment/ 


Chapter  VI 

ORDER  IV.— CARNIVORA  (FLESH- 
EATERS) 

SUB-ORDER  I.— CARNIVORA  OF  THE  LAND 


General  description  of  the  Carnivora — Family 
Felidae  :  Lion  —  Tiger  —  Leopard  —  Ounce  — 
Jaguar — Puma — Ocelot — Fishing  Cat — Serval 
—Wild  Cat  — Domestic  Cat  — Lynx— Caracal 

—  Cheetah  —  Hysenas  —  Aard    Wolf — Family 
Viverridae  :   Civet  —  Ichneumon  —  Mongoose — 
Genet  —  Parodoxure  —  Binturong  —  Suricate  — 
Family  Canidae :  Domestic  Dog — Eskimo  Dog 
— Pariah  Dog — Red  Dog  of  the  Deccan — Cape 
Hunting  Dog — Dingo — Wolf — Coyote — Jackal 
—Common   Fox  —  Arctic   Fox  —  Silver  Fox — 
Fennec — Family    Mustelidae  :    Weasel — Stoat 
or  Ermine — Polecat  —  Ferret — Mink  —  Marten 
—Sable  —  Glutton  —  Badger  —  Cape  Zorilla  — 
Skunk  —  Teledu  —  Common  Otter — Sea  Otter 

—  Family    Procyonidae  :    Raccoon  —  Coaiti  — 
Kinkajou  —  Cacomistle  —  Panda  —  Family  Ur- 
sidae  :    Brown    Bear  —  Grizzly    Bear  —  Syrian 
Bear — Polar  Bear — Black  Bear — Malayan  Bear 
— Spectacled  Bear — Sloth  Bear. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Order  IV. — Carnivora 
(Flesh-Eaters) 

IN  this  order  are  many  well-known  species  of  animals 
which  feed  mainly,  and  in  many  cases  exclusively,  on 
flesh.     The  order  is  divided  into  two  sub-orders  :  — 

1.  Fissipedia  (Lat.,fissus,  to  split ;  pes,  pedis,  a  foot),  or 

split-footed  animals,  which  form  the  Carnivora  of 
the  land. 

2.  Pinnipedia  (Lat.,  pinna,  a  fin  ;  pes,  pedis,  a  foot),  or 

fin-footed  animals,  in  which  the  toes  are  bound 
together  by  skin,  thus  forming  fins  or  flippers. 
These  animals,  together  with  those  of  another 
separate  order,  form  the  Carnivora  of  the  sea. 

Sub-Order  I.— CARNIVORA  OF  THE  LAND. 

The  Carnivora  of  the  land  are  the  'beasts  of  prey/  of 
which  some  species  or  other  are  found  all  over  the  world 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles.  Though  the  majority  of 
them  are  flesh-eaters,  many  of  them  will  partake  freely  of 
vegetable  food  from  choice,  and  still  more  from  necessity  ; 
but  some  of  the  Bears,  for  example,  are  almost  wholly 
vegetarians,  just  as  some  of  the  Lemurs,  Insectivora, 
Rodents,  and  Marsupials,  are  comparatively  large  flesh- 
eaters. 

The  members  of  this  sub-order,  in  the  general  neatness 
of  their  build  and  especially  in  the  construction  of  their 

105 


io6  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

teeth  and  claws,  are  particularly  adapted  for  capturing  and 
destroying  living  animals,  and  for  tearing  and  devouring 
flesh. 

Usually  the  teeth  consist  of  twelve  incisors  with  sharp 
cutting  edges  ;  behind  these  on  each  side,  top  and  bottom, 
is  a  strong,  curved  and  pointed  canine  tooth.  The  premolars 
are  pointed  and  much  compressed,  and  the  true  molars  are 
poorly  developed,  and  in  some  cases  absent  altogether. 
There  are  really  no  chewing  teeth,  for  the  jaws  only  work 
vertically  in  shear-like  fashion.  The  grip  of  the  canine 
teeth  is  terrible,  and  the  animal's  prey  cannot  escape 
when  once  it  is  transfixed  by  what  are  little  less  than  ivory 
skewers. 

The  feet  are  fitted  with  four  or  five  digits,  terminating  in 


LION'S  CLAW — SHEATHED  AND   UNSHEATHED. 
(Natural  size.) 

strong  claws,  none  of  which  are  ever  opposable.  Some 
animals,  such  as  the  lion,  walk  upon  the  toes,  the  under- 
parts  of  which  consist  of  soft,  but  tough,  leathery  pads, 
which  enable  the  creatures  to  approach  their  prey  the  more 
stealthily  and  with  an  absence  of  noise.  The  bear,  on  the 
other  hand,  plants  the  sole  of  its  foot  flat  upon  the  ground, 
with  the  consequence  that  there  is  less  speed  and  springiness 
in  its  gait.  Animals  which  walk  like  the  lion  are  called 
Digitigrades  (Lat.,  digitus,  a  finger),  and  those  with  the  gait 
of  the  bear  are  called  Plantigrades  (Lat.,  planta,  the  sole  of 
the  foot ;  gmdus,  a  step). 

The  Carnivora  at  first  glance  appear  to  be  of  no  use  alive 
to  man,  and  only  for  the  sake  of  their  skins  when  dead. 
There  is,  however,  no  waste  in  nature,  and  but  for  these 
agile,  strong,  and  cunning  destroyers,  some  of  even  the 


THE  CAT  FAMILY  107 

gentle  creatures  of  the  animal  world  would  increase  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  prove  a  positive  scourge  in  the  regions  which 
they  inhabit.  Except  for  one  family,  the  Carnivores  of  the 
land  are  terrestrial  animals,  but  many  of  them  are  expert 
swimmers,  and  equally  agile  climbers. 

Most  of  the  Carnivora  have  the  sense  of  smell  most 
acutely  developed  ;  their  sight  is  keen,  and  their  hearing 
remarkably  delicate  ;  all  of  which  are  in  perfect  accord 
with  their  special  construction  to  overcome  the  animals 
upon  which  they  live. 

The  Cat,  Dog,  and  the  Bear  are  the  most  typical  of  the 
beasts  of  prey,  and  give  their  names  to  the  three  sections 
into  which  the  land  Carnivores  may  be  divided.  In  this 
connection  we  have  to  bear  in  mind  that  such  animals  as 
the  Civets  and  Ichneumons  are  included  with  the  Cats ; 
the  Wolf  and  Fox  are  allied  to  the  Dog  ;  and  the  Bear 
section  comprises  not  only  the  true  Bears,  but  also  the 
Raccoons  and  the  whole  of  the  Weasel  tribe,  Otters,  &c. 

FAMILY   FELID^E   (CATS). 

The  Cats  are  undoubtedly  the  best  developed  and  the 
most  beautiful  members  of  the  whole  order  of  the  Carnivora. 
As  they  are  all  constructed  upon  the  same  principles,  our 
domestic  pussy,  which  is  the  only  one  of  the  forty  species 
entirely  subjected  to  man,  will  well  serve  as  a  model  by 
means  of  which  to  point  out  their  chief  characteristics. 
From  the  lion,  which  strikes  down  and  carries  off  an  ox, 
down  to  the  frolicsome  kitten  pouncing  upon  its  first  mouse, 
all  are  flesh-eaters  and  destroyers  of  living  animals.  All  of 
them  have  rounded  heads  and  a  special  development  of 
teeth  and  claws,  together  with  muscles  to  control  them. 
There  are  three  incisor  or  cutting  teeth  in  the  front  of  each 
jaw,  next  to  which  are  four  powerful  and  sharply  pointed 
canines,  which  are  popularly  called  fangs.  There  are  no 
true  grinders,  for  even  the  ten  premolars  and  the  four  molars 
have  more  or  less  sharp  cutting  edges  and  conical  points. 
Consequently  the  Cats  cannot  masticate  their  food,  but  can 
only  eat  by  snatch  and  swallow. 

Their  hind  feet  have  the  full   complement  of  toes,  i.e., 


io8  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

five,  while  the  fore  feet  appear  to  have  only  four  toes.  But 
a  short  examination  of  a  Cat's  foot  will  detect  a  sharp  and 
curved  claw  about  half  way  between  the  toes  and  the  elbow. 
This  i  dew-claw/  as  it  is  popularly  called,  is  in  reality  the 
nail  of  the  thumb,  the  joints  of  which  are  only  developed 
sufficiently  to  carry  this  claw,  which  is  very  useful  when  the 
prey  is  trying  to  escape.  The  Cats,  therefore,  really  possess 
five  toes  on  each  foot. 

The  Cats,  on  account  of  their  mode  of  life,  must  be 
swift  of  foot  and  capable  of  leaping  great  distances  in 
order  to  capture  their  prey.  The  great  length  of  the 
projecting  heel-bones  adds  to  the  leaping  power,  not 
only  affording  attachment  to  enormously  strong  tendons, 
but  giving  an  additional  leverage  to  the  limb.  The 
bones  of  the  fore  limbs,  too,  are  specially  modified,  the 
ulna  being  of  great  length  and  strength,  and  projecting 
far  beyond  the  radius.  There  are  practically  no  collar- 
bones, the  only  indications  of  them  being  two  tiny, 
flattened,  sabre-shaped  bones,  which  even  in  the  largest 
felines  are  only  an  inch  or  two  in  length. 

The  reason  for  this  structure  is  very  evident.  The 
animal,  when  springing  upon  its  prey,  launches  itself 
through  the  air,  and  simultaneously  strikes  with  its  fore- 
paws.  If,  therefore,  the  fore  limbs  were  connected  with 
the  skeleton  by  a  couple  of  strong  collar-bones,  those 
bones  would  be  broken  by  the  shock,  as  so  often 
happens  to  ourselves,  and  the  animal  would  be  disabled. 
But,  by  their  practical  absence,  the  fore  limbs  are  only 
indirectly  connected  with  the  skeleton,  and  so  the  required 
elasticity  is  obtained. 

The  nails,  claws,  or  talons  as  they  are  indifferently 
termed,  are  strong,  sharply  pointed,  and  boldly  curved 
so  as  to  act  like  hooks.  Now,  however,  comes  a  diffi- 
culty. The  efficiency  of  the  claws  depends  upon  their 
sharpness,  and  if  the  animal  were  to  walk  upon  them 
they  would  soon  be  worn  down  and  blunted.  Moreover, 
they  would  make  a  noise  at  each  step,  and  so  prevent 
the  creature  from  stealing  silently  upon  its  prey.  There- 
fore the  under  surface  of  the  toes  is  furnished  with  a 
large  and  elastic  pad,  which  gives  the  noiseless  tread, 


THE  CAT  FAMILY  109 

although  it  does  not  guard  the  tip  of  the  claw  from  being 
blunted. 

This  latter  object,  however,  is  obtained  by  a  piece  of 
animal  mechanism  at  once  perfect  and  simple,  which 
in  the  accompanying  illustration  is  very  clearly  shown. 
In  the  lower  figure  may  be  seen  two  tendons,  one 
passing  under  the  toe,  and,  when  contracted,  drawing 
the  claw  downwards.  The  other,  by  its  indiarubber-like 
elasticity,  draws  the  claw  upwards  as  long  as  it  is  not 
counteracted  by  the  stronger  tendon  below.  Therefore, 
when  the  animal  is  at  rest,  or  simply  walking,  the  claw 
is  held  off  the  ground  ;  but  when  the  lion  or  any  other 


THE  MECHANISM  OF  A  CAT'S  RETRACTILE  CLAW. 
(Twice  natural  size.) 

of  the  Cat  tribe  stretches  out  its  paw  to  strike  an 
enemy  or  its  prey,  the  claw  is  drawn  forwards  from  its 
sheath  between  the  pads  and  is  ready  for  action.  This 
structure  of  the  claws  is  termed  '  retractile.' 

A  few  more  details  of  structure  must  be  mentioned. 
Both  the  dog  and  the  Cat  are  fond  of  licking  the  hands 
of  those  whom  they  love,  and  we  all  know  by  experi- 
ence that  the  tongue  of  the  dog  is  wet  and  smooth, 
while  that  of  the  Cat  is  dry  and  rough.  The  reason  is 
that  the  tongue  of  the  Cat  has  to  perform  an  office 
which  is  not  needed  by  the  dog.  The  jaws  and 
digestive  organs  of  the  latter  are  so  constructed  that  the 
animal  can  break  bones,  if  they  be  not  very  large, 


no  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

swallow  the  pieces,  and  digest  them.  In  fact,  a  dog 
requires  occasional  bones  to  keep  it  in  good  health  ;  but 
the  Cat  can  neither  crack  bones  nor  digest  them.  Yet, 
when  a  Cat  has  torn  the  flesh  from  the  bones  there  is 
still  much  meat  adhering  to  them  which  cannot  be  removed 
by  the  teeth.  Now  the  peculiar  tongue  comes  into  opera- 
tion. Its  upper  surface  is  covered  with  a  number  of 
sharply-pointed  projections,  all  directed  backwards,  and 
feeling  like  a  soft  rasp  ;  and  with  this  apparatus  is  licked  off 
every  particle  of  flesh  adhering  to  the  bones. 

The  pupil  of  the  Cat's  eye  is  highly  dilatable,  closing  to  a 
narrow  slit  in  broad  light,  but  opening  widely  in  the  dark 
to  admit  all  available  light,  so  that  the  animal  can  see  well 
in  darkness.  The  long  upper  lip  is  fringed  with  stiff  hairs 
or  whiskers,  the  bases  of  which  spring  from  very  delicate 
nerves,  enabling  the  domestic  cat,  for  example,  to  gauge  the 
size  of  a  hole  even  when  in  complete  darkness. 

The  range  of  the  Cat  tribe  is  wide,  although  it  does  not 
extend  into  the  cold  regions  so  far  as  the  Dogs  and  the 
Bears.  Carnivorous  and  sanguinary  to  the  last  degree,  it  is 
fortunate  that  Cats  almost  invariably  hunt  their  prey  alone  ; 
if  they  possessed  the  instinct  of  sociality,  a  troop  of  lions  or 
tigers  hunting  in  concert  would  be  an  appalling  scourge 
that  man  could  not  withstand. 

LION  (Felts  led). 
Coloured  Plate  V.  Fig.  3. 

The  Lion  is  a  typical  Cat  save  for  one  feature  ;  the  pupil 
of  its  eye  does  not  narrow  to  a  slit.  It  is  the  largest 
of  the  Felidae,  standing  about  three  and  a  half  feet 
high,  six  feet  in  length,  and  with  a  tufted  tail  about  a 
yard  long ;  a  female  or  Lioness  is  somewhat  smaller, 
but  large  Lions,  weighing  as  much  as  500  Ibs.,  occa- 
sionally exceed  these  dimensions.  The  coat  varies  from 
dull  tawny  to  yellow  or  silvery  grey,  the  ears  and  tuft  at 
the  end  of  the  tail  and  the  mane  of  the  male  being  more  or 
less  black.  The  hair  of  the  wild  animal  is  shorter  and  closer 
than  that  of  one  in  captivity. 


THE  LION 


in 


The  mane  of  the  male  gives  '  the  King  of  beasts '  a  very 
imposing  appearance,  but  in  a  wild  state  few  animals 
possess  the  luxuriant  adornment  that  is  quite  commonly 
seen  in  menagerie-bred  animals.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
free  animal  is  far  more  alert  and  active,  and  is  particularly 
bigger  and  stronger  in  the  hind  quarters  than  the  captive 
specimen.  There  is,  too,  a  marked  difference  in  the  eye. 
That  of  the  captive  breed  is  brown,  not  unlike  that  of  a 
dog,  but  in  the  wild  creature  it  is  yellow,  scintillating  with 
fire,  and  strikingly  luminous  even  after  death. 

Though  in  different  regions  it  may  differ  very  consider- 
ably in  size  and  coloration,  there  is  really  only  one  species 


SKELETON  OF  THE   LION. 
(About  one-eighteenth  natural  size.) 

of  Lion,  whether  in  Africa  or  Asia.  It  was  formerly 
thought  that  the  black-maned  and  the  yellow-maned 
animals  were  distinct  species ;  but  a  Lioness  in  the  same 
litter  will  often  have  black  and  yellow-maned  cubs. 

The  Lion  is  essentially  an  African  animal,  although  its 
range  extends  into  parts  of  Asia,  including  Persia,  India, 
and  some  portions  of  China.  The  Indian  Lion  at  least 
is  making  rapid  strides  towards  extinction.  For  a  century 
and  a  half  the  country  has  been  occupied  largely  by  British 
troops  and  an  ever-increasing  number  of  Government 
officials  and  white  traders.  The  sport-loving  Briton  has 
made  relentless  war  upon  the  larger  Carnivores,  one  cavalry 


ii2  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

officer  alone,  early  in  the  last  century,  bagging  no  fewer 
than  eighty  Lions  within  three  years. 

In  Africa  the  Lion  still  ranges  from  Algeria  to  the  Orange 
River.  It  largely  ignores  climatic  conditions,  frequenting 
coastlands,  the  hot  sultry  valleys,  desert  regions,  as  well  as 
plateaus  six  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  where  the  winter 
nights  are  cold  and  frosty.  Moffat  in  British  Bechuanaland 
in  one  day  saw  nine  troops  of  Lions,  but  naturally  the  animal 
is  now  scarce  in  the  South,  owing  to  the  spread  of  civili- 
sation and  the  diminution  and  retreat  of  the  vast  herds  of 
antelopes.  Nevertheless,  within  the  last  ten  years  a  Lion 
has  been  killed  not  more  than  twelve  miles  from  Johannes- 
burg. 

In  1890,  when  Mashonaland  was  opened  up  by  the  British 
South  Africa  Company,  the  Lions  were  remarkably  daring 
and  offensive,  and  many  narrow  escapes  were  recorded  by 
the  pioneers  : — 

'One  of  our  fellows  spent  a  very  pleasant  Christmas 
evening.  About  two  or  three  miles  after  he  had  left  our 
camp  with  the  mails,  two  Lions  attacked  the  horses.  One 
creature  sprang  upon  the  back  of  the  horse  he  was  riding  ; 
he  was  leading  the  other  with  the  mails  strapped  on  it  in 
sacks.  He  managed  to  swing  himself  out  of  the  saddle 
into  a  tree.  The  Lions  left  the  horses  and  came  and  walked 
about  under  the  tree  for  seven  hours,  when  one  of  our 
wagons  came  up  and  the  beasts  were  frightened  away.  The 
horse  he  was  riding  went  straight  to  the  next  post  station, 
dreadfully  torn  ;  and  the  one  with  the  mails  was  brought  in 
by  natives  three  days  afterwards.' 

When  the  Uganda  railway  was  under  construction  the 
Lions  at  times  created  quite  a  panic.  Two  ferocious 
animals  stationed  themselves  on  the  Tsavo  river,  and  in 
quite  a  short  time  they  killed  twenty-eight  Indian  coolies 
and  a  still  larger  number  of  native  workmen.  The  work  of 
the  section  was  brought  to  a  standstill  until  the  'man- 
eaters  '  were  destroyed.  At  another  point  on  the  line,  when 
a  train  was  in  a  siding  a  Lion  actually  pulled  a  passenger 
out  of  a  sleeping  compartment  and  devoured  him. 

Yet  most  travellers  and  hunters  agree  that  the  Lion  is  not 
nearly  so  formidable  an  animal,  at  least  in  daytime,  as  is 


THE  LION  113 

generally  thought.  It  seldom  meddles  with  man  voluntarily  ; 
but  when  man  intrudes  himself  into  the  Lion's  domicile,  it 
is  no  wonder  that  the  animal  should  attack  him.  Indeed, 
the  Amatonga  tribe  did  their  best  to  dissuade  Baldwin  from 
killing  the  Lion,  because  they  looked  upon  it  as  affording  a 
supply  of  food,  killing  more  than  it  could  eat,  and  leaving 
the  rest  for  them.  If  a  man  should  come  unexpectedly 
upon  a  Lion,  the  animal  will  invariably  slink  off,  unless  it 
should  be  taken  very  much  by  surprise,  in  which  case  it 
would  probably  fly  at  the  intruder  in  self-defence.  Says 
Gordon  Gumming  : — 

'One  day,  while  out  elephant-hunting,  accompanied  by 
two  hundred  and  fifty  men,  I  was  astonished  suddenly  to 
behold  a  majestic  Lion,  slowly  and  steadily  advancing 
towards  us.  Lashing  his  tail  from  side  to  side  and  growl- 
ing angrily,  he  displayed  a  show  of  ivory  that  caused  the 
two  hundred  and  fifty  Bechuanas  to  take  headlong  flight. 
In  the  confusion  of  the  moment,  eight  of  my  dogs  were 
allowed  to  escape  from  their  couples.  These  instantly  faced 
the  Lion,  who  now  became  solicitous  for  the  safety  of 
his  little  family,  with  which  the  Lioness  was  retreating  in 
the  background.  Turning  about,  he  followed  her  with  a 
haughty  and  independent  step,  growling  fiercely  at  the  dogs 
which  trotted  along  at  either  side  of  him.' 

Had  she  been  without  her  mate,  the  Lioness  would 
probably  have  charged  the  enemy  without  consideration  of 
consequences  ;  but  the  male  is  never  to  be  feared  as  much 
as  the  female,  especially  when  she  has  her  young  to  guard. 
When  she  is  alone,  she  is  more  likely  to  attack  than  her 
consort ;  but  even  she  will  rather  escape  than  fight. 

Thanks  to  the  many  menageries  up  and  down  our 
country,  and  the  ease  with  which  the  Lion  is  bred  in 
captivity,  there  are  few  who  have  not  heard  the  Lion's 
roar.  But  a  Lion's  roar  in  a  menagerie  is  one  thing, 
and  a  Lion's  roar  in  the  open  country  at  night  is 
another.  '  Frequently  it  is  a  low,  deep  moaning,  repeated 
five  or  six  times,  ending  in  faintly  audible  sighs.  At  others, 
he  startles  the  forest  with  solemn  roars  reiterated  in  quick 
succession,  each  increasing  in  loudness  to  the  third  or 
fourth,  when  his  voice  dies  away  in  low,  muffled  sounds 

9 


FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 


resembling  thunder.'  Gordon  Gumming  adds  that  'the 
grandeur  of  these  nocturnal  forest  concerts  is  inconceivably 
striking,  and  pleasing  to  the  hunter's  ear.'  A  trooper  in 
Mashonaland  hearing  the  Lion's  roar  for  the  first  time  was 
impressed  differently  : — 

'  I  have  often  heard  that  a  Lion's  roar  is  very  terrible.  It 
is ;  and  if  you  want  thoroughly  to  appreciate  it,  you  must 
be  lying  in  the  open  with  two  of  them  at  it  less  than  twenty 
yards  off,  in  the  middle  of  the  night.  The  noise  is  hard  to 
describe,  but  it  is  most  like  about  fifty  cows  bellowing  all  at 
once,  and  with  a  tremendous  vibration  in  it,  which  goes 
through  and  through  you.' 

That   Lions  can  be  dangerous  neighbours,   carrying  off 

much  cattle  and  occa- 
sionally killing  human 
beings,  cannot  be  denied. 
Their  strength  is  enor- 
mous, and  a  full-grown 
Lion  can  pull  down  any 
animal  except  the 
elephant  and  the  rhino- 
ceros. In  Mashonaland 
a  Lioness  killed  a  hun- 
dred pigs  in  a  single 
night.  She  had  entered 
a  range  of  pens,  and 
after  killing  and  eating 

one  animal  found  that  she  could  not  return  owing  to  a 
closing  door  ;  the  result  was  that  she  wandered  from  pen 
to  pen  in  her  efforts  to  escape  and  put  to  death  every 
animal  that  she  encountered.  The  appetite  of  a  hungry 
Lion  is  enormous.  It  gulps  down  huge  quantities  of  meat, 
often  a  good-sized  antelope  at  a  meal. 

'  Man-eaters,'  as  they  are  called,  are  almost  invariably 
the  old  and  somewhat  decrepit  animals,  too  stiffened  by 
age  to  catch  the  active  antelope  or  master  the  powerful 
buffalo.  Such  Lions  take  to  haunting  the  native  villages  in 
hope  of  picking  up  a  stray  ox  or  a  child  or  aged  people, 
unable  to  oppose  them.  There  are,  of  course,  exceptions  to 
the  general  rule.  A  '  man-eater '  that  killed  thirty-seven 


SKULL  OF  THE  LION. 
(About  one-sixth  natural  size.) 


THE  LION  115 

people  on  the  Majali  river  was  found  to  be  an  animal  in  the 
prime  of  life.  But  the  very  existence  of  man-eaters  is  dis- 
creditable to  the  villagers,  and  is  due  either  to  their  laziness 
or  their  superstition.  No  one  ever  heard  of  a  man-eating 
Lion  establishing  itself  near  any  town  or  village  that  was 
inhabited  by  Europeans,  an  elderly  Lion  having  long  learnt 
the  lesson  that  the  white  man  is  an  enemy  whom  it  must 
avoid  if  it  value  its  safety.  In  Algeria  the  Lion  is  held  in 
absurd  dread  by  the  natives,  whose  cowardly  behaviour 
taught  it  to  consider  itself  invincible.  Consequently  they 
tamely  submitted  to  the  loss  of  hundreds  of  cattle  annually, 
considering  them  as  a  sort  of  tax  which  they  were  bound  to 
pay  without  demur.  Since  the  French  have  occupied  the 
country  the  Lion  has  had  no  such  immunity,  and  has 
already  retreated  to  the  more  inaccessible  regions. 

Closely  connected  with  the  Lion,  and,  in  fact,  all  the 
beasts  of  prey,  is  the  very  important  question  of  cruelty. 
Why  should  one  set  of  animals  be  allowed  to  feed  upon 
another  set,  tearing  in  pieces  their  prey  while  still  living  ? 
In  the  first  place,  we  ought  not  to  make  ourselves  the 
standard  by  which  to  judge  the  economy  of  the  animal 
world.  Man  looks  forward  to  the  future,  and  fears  death 
in  proportion  to  his  mental  cultivation.  The  pure  savage 
has  no  fear  of  death,  simply  because  he  does  not  possess 
the  power  of  realising  the  difference  between  life  and 
death.  So  the  lower  animals  live  in  unconscious  enjoy- 
ment of  life  until  the  last  moment.  Again,  we  ought 
not  to  assume  that  all  animals  possess  equal  capacity  for 
suffering  pain.  Even  in  human  beings  there  is  a  great 
diversity  in  this  respect,  and  the  lower  the  nervous 
organisation,  the  less  is  the  sense  of  pain. 

In  no  case  should  man  cause  unnecessary  suffering  to  the 
lower  creation  over  whom  he  is  placed  as  a  master,  and  not 
a  tyrant.  It  is  necessary  to  exterminate  beasts  of  prey,  and 
creatures  of  all  kinds  are  needed  for  the  food  of  man  ;  but 
their  death  should  be  effected  with  the  greatest  possible 
expedition  and  the  minimum  of  pain.  Our  treatment  of 
the  domestic  animals  in  particular  is  often  marked  by  a 
thoughtless  disregard  for  the  feelings  of  those  over  whom 
we  have  dominion.  As  far  as  we  possibly  can  we  ought  to 


n6  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

treat  all  animals  as  we  would  like  to  be  treated  ourselves, 

and  : 

'Never  to  blend  our  pleasure  or  our  pride 
With  sorrow  of  the  meanest  thing  that  feels.' 

Dr.  Livingstone  has  shown  us,  by  his  own  experience, 
that  the  very  shock  of  being  seized  by  a  carnivorous  animal 
takes  away  the  senses  of  pain  and  fear.  ' 1  saw  the  lion 
just  in  the  act  of  springing  upon  me.  Grunting  horribly, 
close  to  my  ear,  he  shook  me  as  a  terrier  does  a  rat. 
The  shock  produced  a  stupor  similar  to  that  which  seems 
to  be  felt  by  a  mouse  after  the  first  shake  of  the  cat. 
It  caused  a  sort  of  dreaminess,  in  which  there  was  no 
sense  of  pain  or  feeling  of  terror,  though  I  was  quite 
conscious  of  all  that  was  happening.  The  shake  anni- 
hilated fear,  and  allowed  no  sense  of  horror  at  looking 
round  at  the  beast.  This  peculiar  state  is  probably 
produced  in  all  animals  killed  by  the  carnivora,  and,  if 
so,  is  a  merciful  provision  by  our  benevolent  Creator  for 
lessening  the  pains  of  death/ 

Although  the  Lion  is  less  inclined  for  battle  than  for 
flight,  the  task  of  killing  one  is  fraught  with  the  greatest 
danger.  Unless  it  be  killed  or  entirely  disabled  at  the  first 
shot,  the  Lion  at  once  turns  on  its  foes,  and,  like  a 
lightning  flash,  is  among  them,  '  a  cataract  of  claws,'  as 
a  spectator  happily  remarked.  It  is  a  remarkable  trait 
in  all  the  large  carnivora,  that  if  they  receive  a  mortal 
wound,  and  do  not  see  whence  it  was  dealt,  they  quietly 
lie  down  and  succumb.  But,  if  they  catch  a  glimpse  of 
their  enemy,  they  gather  all  their  remaining  strength,  and 
compress  into  a  few  seconds  the  vengeance  of  a  lifetime. 

The  Lion  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  more  frequently  than 
any  other  beast,  except  the  domesticated  animals.  When 
a  Lion  took  a  lamb  from  the  flock,  David  'caught  him 
by  his  beard,  and  smote  him  and  slew  him  '  (i  Sam.  xvii. 
34-36).  There  is  also  recorded  the  feat  of  Benaiah,  who 
'  went  down  also  and  slew  a  Lion  in  the  midst  of  a 
pit  in  time  of  snow/  This  was  a  particularly  daring 
deed,  to  descend  into  the  pitfall  and  slay  the  captive  single- 
handed. 


Plate  V. 


••;% 

'  ^    | 

f\\        ^ 


3.  Lion 


^> 


THE  TIGER  117 

Pitfalls,  as  means  of  capturing  Lions,  are  mentioned  in 
Ezekiel  and  elsewhere.  Spikes  were  driven  into  the  pits 
upon  which  to  impale  the  falling  animal.  Nets  were  used 
in  another  method  ;  and  both  pits  and  nets  are  still  used  by 
the  natives  of  India. 

The  Lion  lingered  in  Palestine  until  about  the  time 
of  the  Crusades  ;  it  is  still  found  in  Mesopotamia,  where 
it  used  to  afford  sport  to  the  Kings  of  Nineveh.  It  has 
long  been  kept  in  confinement  by  various  nations.  The 
Romans  used  it  for  public  combats  in  the  arena,  and 
to  gratify  a  cruel  taste  in  witnessing  the  destruction  of 
criminals.  The  Easterns  kept  the  animal  chiefly  for 
display,  and  because  it  was  regarded  as  a  symbol  of 
royalty. 

The  skin  of  the  Lion  is  practically  of  no  commercial 
importance,  and  during  any  one  year  perhaps  not  more 
than  a  hundred  skins  come  into  the  market.  The  flesh 
of  the  Cat  tribe  is  but  little  used  for  food ;  but  Hottentots 
and  certain  Arab  tribes  never  hesitate  to  partake  of  it. 
The  idea  that  a  person  develops  the  characteristics  of  an 
animal  which  he  eats  is  very  common  among  many 
peoples  ;  and  while  Lion-flesh  would  be  given  especially  to 
boys  in  order  to  make  them  strong  and  courageous,  the 
flesh  of  pigs  or  tortoises  would  be  avoided,  lest  the  eater 
should,  in  consequence,  get  small  eyes. 

TIGER  (Felts  tigris). 
Coloured  Plate  V.  Fig.  2. 

Far  more  agile  and  rapid,  the  Tiger  is  more  dangerous 
than  the  lion.  This  animal  is  wholly  confined  to  Asia, 
and  is  to  India  what  the  lion  is  to  Africa.  In  size  it 
is  at  least  the  equal,  if  not  the  superior,  of  the  lion, 
whose  huge  mane  often  gives  it  the  appearance  of  being 
bigger  than  it  really  is.  Unfortunately,  the  Tiger  still 
survives  in  great  numbers  ;  it  swarms  in  the  Sunderbunds, 
the  marshy  cane-brakes  of  the  delta  of  the  Ganges,  and 
in  the  Malay  Peninsula  generally.  Bigger  Tigers  still  are 
found  in  China  and  Siberia,  where  the  coat  of  the  animal 


n8  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE   LAND 

is  quite  woolly,  to  enable  it  to  endure  the  cold.  Mr. 
J.  D.  Cobbold  shot  one  in  Central  Asia  in  a  frozen 
snow-covered  swamp,  where  the  hunter  was  almost  in 
danger  of  freezing  to  death. 

The  largest  known  Tiger  skin  came  from  north  of  the 
Himalaya  ;  it  measured  thirteen  and  a  half  feet  from  the 
nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail.  But  practically  our  sole 
reliable  knowledge  of  the  Tiger  is  limited  to  the  scourge 
of  India,  the  largest  known  skin  of  which  measured 
eleven  and  a  half  feet. 

The  markings  of  the  Tiger's  fur  are  very  beautiful,  a 
series  of  dark,  transverse  stripes  being  laid  on  a  rich,  ruddy 
yellow  ground  ;  there  are  black  rings  on  the  tail.  The 
skin  of  the  Cat  tribe  is  loose,  but  in  the  Tiger  it  is  in 
folds  almost  to  bagginess.  In  their  gambols  or  in  their 
conflicts  among  themselves,  or  with  other  animals,  it  is 
practically  impossible  for  the  foe  to  get  a  firm  grip  of 
them. 

The  countenance  of  the  Tiger  is  a  terrible  study  in  blood 
thirsty  characteristics.  The  massive  jaws,  the  fierce,  snarling 
lips  disclosing  the  great  yellow  fangs,  and  the  relentless, 
glaring  eyes  make  up  a  whole  that  thrills  one  uncomfort- 
ably, even  when  it  is  viewed  through  the  bars  of  a  cage. 
To  meet  the  Tiger  in  its  matchless  strength  in  its  native 
haunts  calls  for  courage  in  the  highest  degree.  Even  an 
experienced  hunter  like  Mr.  E.  D.  Cuming  says  :  '  Speaking 
for  myself,  that  green  glare  of  a  Tiger's  eyes  at  close  quarters 
in  uncertain  moonlight  has  a  distinctly  unsettling  effect  on 
the  nerves  :  one  can  hold  steadier  when  he  is  not  looking.' 

In  most  of  its  habits  the  Tiger  so  much  resembles 
the  Lion  that  they  need  not  be  described.  There  is, 
however,  one  point  in  which  it  exceeds  the  Lion.  Man- 
eating  lions  are  comparatively  rare,  but  man-eating  Tigers 
are  fearfully  common,  and  depopulate  whole  districts.  A 
single  Tiger  has  been  known  to  tyrannise  over  a  district 
of  thirty  or  forty  square  miles,  every  village  being  deserted 
by  its  inhabitants.  It  destroyed  at  least  a  hundred  human 
beings  in  one  year.  Its  immunity  was  due  to  two  causes ; 
one  being  the  natural  apathy  of  the  Oriental  disposition, 
and  the  other  the  superstitious  Hindoo  idea  that  the  Tiger 


THE  TIGER  119 

is  a  supernatural  animal,  with  powers  of  doing  harm  even 
after  death. 

Sometimes  the  man-eater  happens  to  be  an  old  female  who 
has  a  family.  In  this  case,  the  cubs,  being  reared  on  human 
flesh,  are  man-eaters  from  childhood,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
extirpate  the  whole  family  before  human  life  is  safe.  Were 
it  not  for  the  presence  of  the  British,  many  a  large  district 
in  India  would  be  depopulated.  When  a  Tiger  has  been 
killed,  the  superstition  of  the  natives  again  asserts  itself. 
No  sooner  has  the  animal  drawn  its  last  breath  than  the 
native  beaters  rush  upon  it  and  try  to  burn  off  its  whiskers, 
thinking  that  if  this  be  done  the  animal  will  be  deprived  of 
its  power  over  them  after  death.  The  beauty  and  value  of 
a  Tiger  skin  depend  on  the  perfect  condition  of  its  whiskers, 
and  the  hunters  use  every  effort  to  preserve  them  intact. 
But  the  natives  ignore  threats,  persuasions,  and  bribes,  and 
often,  even  after  the  skin  is  packed,  obtain  access  to  it  to 
give  effect  to  their  superstitious  desires.  The  paws  and  the 
little  collar-bones  of  the  animal  are  also  believed  to  be 
powerful  charms  against  evil. 

In  connection  with  the  Tiger's  liking  for  human  flesh,  it 
is  a  remarkable  fact  that  it  will  usually  pick  a  black  man  out 
of  a  mixed  company,  except  perhaps  in  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula, where  it  appears  to  regard  a  Chinaman  as  a  rare 
tit-bit.  When  Chinese  convicts  in  chains  were  engaged  at 
work  on  the  roads  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Singapore,  the 
prisoners  were  constantly  snatched  up  by  the  cruellest  foe 
that  man  has  in  the  whole  of  the  animal  world. 

The  strength  of  the  Tiger  is  gigantic,  as  may  be  inferred 
from  the  average  girth  of  the  forearm,  which  is  little  less 
than  three  feet,  the  girth  of  the  neck  being  half  a  foot  more. 
The  average  length  of  a  full-grown  male  Tiger  is  nine 
and  a  half  feet,  and  its  weight  is  about  450  Ibs.  An 
old  Tiger  always  becomes  very  cunning,  and  can  conceal 
itself  so  effectually  that  even  the  keen  eye  of  the  native 
hunter  is  often  at  fault.  The  fact  is  that  the  dark  stripes 
on  the  Tiger's  fur  harmonise  so  well  with  the  shadows  of 
the  herbage  in  which  the  animal  is  lying,  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other. 

The  lion,  perhaps  mistakenly,  has   been   accounted  the 


120  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

type  of  heroic  animal  perfection  ;  but  the  Tiger  has  ever 
been  viewed  as  the  emblem  of  bloodthirstiness,  treachery, 
and  unbridled  ferocity.  The  latter  is  extremely  pertinacious, 
and,  unlike  the  lion,  if  its  first  attack  is  unsuccessful,  it  will 
not  slink  back  to  its  retreat,  but  will  pursue  its  victim  with 
a  speed  and  activity  scarcely  credible. 

Of  the  Tiger's  fierce  and  unprovoked  onslaughts  it  would 
be  easy  to  afford  instances  by  the  hundred,  but  the  following 
will  serve  as  an  excellent  example.  A  party  of  naval  officers 
landed  near  the  mouth  of  the  Hooghly  to  shoot  deer,  which 
sport  they  followed  for  several  hours.  An  eyewitness 
writes  : — 

'  About  half-past  three  we  sat  down  on  the  edge  of  the 
jungle,  and  had  just  commenced  our  meal,  when  a  black 
servant  informed  us  that  there  was  a  fine  deer  within  six 
yards  of  us.  Captain  Downing  and  I  immediately  jumped 
up  to  take  our  guns  ;  mine  was  nearest,  and  I  had  just  laid 
hold  of  it,  when  I  heard  a  roar  like  thunder,  and  saw  an 
immense  Tiger  spring  on  Mr.  Munro,  who  was  sitting  down. 
In  a  moment  his  head  was  in  the  beast's  mouth,  and  he 
rushed  into  the  jungle  with  him  with  as  much  ease  as  I 
could  lift  a  kitten,  tearing  him  through  the  thickest 
bushes  and  trees,  everything  yielding  to  his  monstrous 
strength.' 

Though  the  poor  youth  was  still  in  the  creature's  mouth, 
four  shots  were  fired  at  the  Tiger,  which  staggered  as  it 
disappeared.  '  A  few  minutes  after,  Mr.  Munro  came  up  to 
us,  all  over  blood,  and  fell.  He  lived  twenty-four  hours  in 
the  utmost  torture  ;  his  head  and  skull  were  all  torn  and 
broken  to  pieces,  and  he  was  also  wounded  by  the  animal's 
claws  all  over  his  neck  and  shoulders.  But  it  was  better  to 
take  him  away,  though  irrecoverable,  than  leave  him  to  be 
mangled  and  devoured.' 

The  following  furnishes  an  example  of  the  muscular 
powers  of  the  Tiger.  An  Indian  peasant  found  a  buffalo 
in  a  quagmire,  in  which  it  was  so  deeply  embedded  that  all 
efforts  to  get  it  out  were  unavailing.  While  the  man  went 
to  procure  the  assistance  of  his  friends  a  Tiger  appeared, 
seized  the  buffalo,  and  dragged  it  out.  When  help  arrived, 
the  immense  Cat  was  carrying  its  prey  towards  the  jungle, 


THE  TIGER  121 

but  perceiving  the  party  of  men,  the  Tiger  dropped  the  dead 
beast  and  made  its  escape.  The  buffalo  was  probably 
nearly  a  thousand  pounds  in  weight,  or  more  than  twice 
that  of  the  Tiger. 

It  is  not  only  in  the  open  that  the  Tiger  is  to  be  feared  ;  it 
often  enters  houses  at  night  in  search  of  prey.  An  educated 
Hindoo  gentleman  had  a  night  encounter  second  to  none 
as  a  blood-curdling  experience  without  a  tragic  ending. 
While  he  was  lying  in  bed,  a  huge  Tiger  entered  the  room 
and  peered  at  him  with  his  glowing  eyes  through  the  gauze 
mosquito  curtains  that  surrounded  the  bed ;  he  was  so  close 
that  his  fetid  breath  was  in  the  man's  face.  The  brute 
probably  viewed  the  netted  bed  as  a  trap  and  its  occupant 
as  the  '  bait,'  and  the  man  held  his  breath  in  the  hope  that 
the  creature's  caution  would  master  his  desire  for  a  meal. 

But  the  pressure  of  the  tiger's  head  caused  a  cord  to  snap, 
and  down  came  the  curtains.  The  spell  was  broken  !  In 
the  brief  instant  of  respite  allowed  by  the  temporary  surprise 
of  the  animal,  the  man  slipped  between  the  wall  and  the  bed 
and  crawled  under  it.  The  next  moment  the  Tiger  was 
tearing  the  netting  and  the  sheets  to  shreds,  only  to  find  his 
prey  had  disappeared. 

Speedily  the  animal  located  the  man  and  made  a  wild 
dash  to  reach  him  ;  but  the  bed  was  too  low  to  permit  the 
huge  head  to  pass  under  it.  By  repeated  efforts  the  cruel 
head  with  its  fiery  eyeballs  was  forced  under  the  beam, 
whose  sharp  edge  peeled  the  skin  off  the  animal's  forehead, 
which  by  no  means  improved  his  temper  ;  but  he  could 
make  no  further  progress,  and  there  man  and  beast  lay 
separated  by  only  a  few  feet ;  the  one  paralysed  with  terror, 
and  the  other  working  his  horrible  jaws  as  though  tearing 
flesh  to  bits. 

Perceiving  that  the  animal  was  fixed  as  in  a  trap,  the 
man  again  withdrew  to  the  bed,  to  throw  his  weight  upon 
it  just  above  the  head  of  the  tiger,  which  was  frantically 
endeavouring  in  the  narrow  space,  where  its  body  was 
wedged,  to  get  sufficient  leverage  to  lift  up  the  heavy  load. 

Calculating  his  chances  to  a  nicety,  the  man  paid  a  flying 
visit  to  the  next  room,  where  he  procured  a  carving-knife, 
the  .only  weapon  available.  He  returned  to  the  room,  and 


122  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

leaning  over  the  shoulders  of  the  Tiger,  he  drove  the  point 
of  the  nine  inches  of  steel  into  the  animal's  heart.  There 
was  a  terrific  roar,  the  bed  was  hurled  up  and  the  man  was 
dashed  against  the  wall  to  sink  into  unconsciousness,  in 
which  he  was  found  later  by  the  side  of  the  dead  beast, 
which  he  had  despatched  by  that  one  desperate  thrust. 

The  Tiger  is  not  infrequently  trapped,  and  still  more  often 
it  is  attracted  by  the  cries  of  a  live  bait,  and  is  then  shot 
by  the  hunters,  stationed  on  a  platform  in  a  neighbouring 
tree.  From  the  very  nature  of  the  Sunderbunds  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  hunt  the  tiger  in  that  region  ;  but  in  the  Terai,  the 
jungle  belt  approaching  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya,  there  is 
more  chance  of  success  by  beating  the  covert  with  elephants. 

*  There  is  something  very  solemn  and  impressive  about  a 
tiger  beat,'  says  Major  C.  S.  Cumberland.  '  There  is  a  long 
line  of  black  backs,  the  elephants  moving  at  a  funeral  pace. 
Not  a  sound  is  heard  but  the  swish  of  the  grass  as  their 
huge  carcasses  brush  along.  At  intervals  down  the  line  the 
sportsman  stands  up  in  his  howdah.  Every  one  is  on  the 
tiptoe  of  expectation,  including  the  elephants,  who  know 
what  they  are  there  for/ 

Sometimes  the  Tiger  launches  itself  out  of  cover  and 
springs  on  an  elephant,  clawing  furiously  at  its  hide,  which, 
tough  as  it  is,  receives  frightful  lacerations.  If  the  elephant 
can  shake  the  beast  off,  it  either  kneels  on  it  to  crush  it  at 
once  or  gives  it  a  kick  that  sends  it  flying  twenty  paces  off 
with  broken  ribs.  The  elephant  may  even  fall  in  the  hope 
of  rolling  on  its  enemy,  in  which  case  the  persons  in  the 
howdah  are  in  considerable  danger  from  friend  and  foe  alike. 
'  Usually  a  well-directed  shot  catches  the  Tiger  fair,  and  over 
he  goes.  Or  he  may  go  on  to  lie  up  in  a  real  thick  place  and 
take  a  deal  of  finishing,  sometimes  fighting  and  charging  to 
the  last,  and  sometimes  dying  like  a  cur,  for  Tigers,  like 
human  beings,  vary  much  in  character/ 

Mr.  Sainthill  Eardley-Wilmot,  late  Inspector-General  of 
Woods  and  Forests  to  the  Government  of  India,  returned 
to  England  in  April,  1909.  During  his  thirty-five  years' 
service  he  killed  130  Tigers,  nearly  all  of  which  he  en- 
countered while  he  was  on  foot  in  the  course  of  his  daily 
duty  in  the  forests  and  jungles  of  India  and  Burma. 


THE   PANTHER  123 

LEOPARD  (Felis  pardus). 
Coloured  Plate  VI.  Fig.  i. 

Next  to  the  lion  and  tiger  the  Leopard,  or  Panther,  is  the 
largest  of  the  Cat  family  in  the  Old  World ;  it  is  more  widely 
distributed,  being  found  wherever  the  two  former  animals 
dwell,  as  well  as  in  many  regions  where  they  are  absent. 
There  is  considerable  variety  in  size  and  colour,  but  making 
allowance  for  climatic  differences,  there  is  but  little  change 
in  the  Leopards  all  the  world  over.  Usually  the  animal  is 
from  four  to  five  feet  in  length,  with  a  tail  of  about  three 
feet.  The  ground  colour  in  some  cases  is  nearly  white  and 
in  others  jet  black,  but  more  commonly  it  is  reddish  or 
yellowish,  and  marked  all  over  from  head  to  foot  and  to  the 
tip  of  the  tail  with  black  spots,  each  with  a  paler  centre. 
Black  animals  are  only  indistinctly  spotted ;  they  are 
usually  found  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  neighbouring 
islands. 

The  Leopard  is  more  compact  in  build  than  the  tiger  and 
has  no  vestige  of  a  mane  or  tail  tuft.  Although  a  true  Cat 
and  constructed  on  the  same  model  as  the  lion  and  tiger,  it 
is  very  different  in  some  of  its  habits.  If  a  hunter  be 
chased  by  either  of  the  larger  animals,  and  can  climb  a 
tree  so  far  as  to  be  out  of  reach  of  the  animal's  leap,  he  is 
perfectly  safe,  neither  of  these  creatures  being  able  to  climb 
trees  ;  but  the  Leopard  is  quite  at  home  in  a  tree,  as  even 
the  agile  monkey  can  painfully  testify. 

In  Africa  the  Leopard  is  found  from  Algeria  to  within  a 
few  miles  of  Cape  Town.  In  South  Africa,  where  the  Boers 
always  speak  of  the  animal  as  the  tijger,  next  to  the  flesh  of 
the  Klipspringer,  the  favourite  food  of  the  spotted  carnivore 
is  the  baboon.  The  rocks,  among  which  the  baboons  live, 
also  afford  shelter  to  the  crafty  Leopard,  and  even  the 
vigorous  monkey  sentinels  cannot  always  detect  the  foe  in 
time  to  give  warning  before  one  of  their  number  is  snatched 
away.  Sometimes  two  or  three  '  old  men '  baboons  will 
jointly  offer  fight  to  their  enemy  and  rend  the  Leopard  in 
pieces. 

Small  antelopes,  bush  pigs,  rabbits,  and  birds,  none  come 


i24  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

amiss  to  the  Leopard.  It  plays  havoc  with  farm  stock — 
calves,  sheep,  goats,  and  young  colts.  It  generally  seizes 
its  prey  by  the  throat,  holding  on  until  it  is  strangled  or  its 
spine  is  broken. 

While  civilisation  has  driven  the  lion  further  afield  in 
South  Africa,  it  is  different  in  the  case  of  the  Leopard.  Its 
numbers  have  been  thinned,  but  it  is  difficult  to  exterminate 
an  animal  that  is  so  strictly  nocturnal  and  which  hides  in 
incredibly  small  places.  It  is  still  found  even  quite  close  to 
some  of  the  large  towns,  where  there  are  lurking  places  and 
where  food  is  obtainable.  Since  the  war  it  has  increased  in 
numbers  considerably,  for  all  the  Dutch  farmers  were  en- 
gaged in  the  military  operations,  and  consequently  there 
was  no  one  left  on  the  farms  to  take  the  usual  toll  of  the 
spotted  marauder. 

Although  seldom  a  man-eater,  the  Leopard,  when  it  grows 
old,  becomes  a  confirmed  cattle-eater,  hanging  about  the 
outskirts  of  villages,  hiding  itself  in  a  most  effectual  manner, 
and  whipping  off  daily  at  least  a  goat,  pig,  poultry,  or 
especially  a  dog,  which  it  almost  prefers  to  a  baboon.  Some- 
times it  has  recourse  to  a  very  cunning  device.  It  takes  up 
its  quarters  close  to  a  village,  showing  itself  rather  ostenta- 
tiously, so  as  to  put  the  inhabitants  on  their  guard.  Then 
at  night  it  goes  off  to  another  village  at  some  distance  and 
helps  itself  at  leisure,  the  inhabitants  never  suspecting  its 
presence. 

On  rare  occasions,  the  Leopard  does  become  a  man- 
eater,  and  is  then  even  more  dreaded  than  the  tiger, 
inasmuch  as  it  can  leap  farther  and  can  climb  trees.  Its 
cunning,  too,  is  greater  than  that  of  the  tiger.  One  of  these 
animals,  which  for  a  long  time  baffled  the  hunters,  used  to 
appear  suddenly  before  a  village  and  make  an  attack  upon 
it,  thus  drawing  all  the  armed  men  and  the  dogs  towards  it. 
The  Leopard  would  then  slink  away  into  the  bush,  slip 
round  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  village,  which  was  left 
undefended,  make  a  dash  into  it,  snatch  up  a  child,  and 
make  its  escape  with  its  prey.  It  showed  its  cunning  in 
another  way. 

As  a  rule  the  large  carnivora,  when  they  have  taken  prey, 
eat  to  repletion  and  then  sleep  until  they  are  again  hungry, 


Plate  VL 


THE  LEOPARD  125 

when  they  return  to  the  carcass  and  make  another  meal. 
Knowing  these  habits,  the  hunters  often  kill  the  lion,  tiger 
and  Leopard  by  lying  in  ambush  near  the  body  of  the  prey 
and  shooting  the  animal  when  it  comes  back  to  its  feast. 
But  this  Leopard  never  made  more  than  one  meal  from  a 
victim,  never  appeared  twice  in  the  same  place,  and  often 
contented  itself  with  drinking  the  blood  of  its  prey,  not 
touching  the  body.  It  had  also  the  habit  of  carrying  the 
bodies  of  children  into  trees  and  hiding  them  in  the  forks 
of  branches  at  some  height  from  the  ground.  Of  course,  it 
killed  far  more  human  beings  than  it  would  have  done  had 
it  made  its  meals  after  the  usual  carnivorous  fashion. 

On  the  whole  the  Leopard  is  more  cowardly  than  the 
lion  or  tiger.  It  is,  however,  particularly  dangerous  when 
wounded,  either  coming  straight  for  its  foe  to  attack  with 
teeth  and  claws,  or  else  it  seeks  cover  to  spring  out  suddenly. 
In  this  latter  respect  it  is  certainly  worse  than  the  lion,  and 
what  it  lacks  in  size  compared  to  the  tiger  is  more  than 
atoned  for  in  the  greater  length  of  its  avenging  leap. 

An  adventure  with  a  Leopard  at  close  quarters  is  generally 
something  to  be  remembered,  as  illustrated  in  the  following 
instance.  Two  Boers  were  returning  from  an  antelope  hunt 
when  they  met  a  Leopard  in  a  mountain  ravine.  Like  most 
of  its  tribe,  the  creature  first  tried  to  escape  by  climbing  up 
a  precipice,  but  being  slightly  wounded  by  a  shot,  it  turned 
upon  its  pursuers  with  the  utmost  ferocity.  It  tore  one 
man  from  his  horse,  bringing  him  to  the  ground,  biting  his 
shoulder  and  clawing  his  face  and  arms. 

The  second  hunter  fired  in  the  hope  of  relieving  his 
friend  ;  the  shot  missed,  and  the  infuriated  animal  turned 
upon  its  new  antagonist.  In  one  bound  the  Leopard  was 
upon  him,  tearing  his  scalp  over  his  forehead  ;  and  in  the 
same  moment  man  and  beast,  grappled  together,  fell  over  a 
steep  declivity.  In  the  meantime  the  first  man  had  re- 
covered his  gun,  but  he  could  do  nothing  as  his  friend  and 
the  Leopard  rolled  over  and  over  to  the  bottom  of  the  steep 
bank.  When  at  length  he  was  able  to  lay  the  savage  beast 
low,  it  did  but  hasten  its  death  from  the  knife  wounds  of 
the  hunter,  who  now  lay  dying  with  his  throat  practically 
torn  out. 


126  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

The  Asiatic  Leopards  are  no  whit  better  than  their  African 
cousins  :  whether  in  Western  Asia,  India,  China,  Siberia,  or 
Japan,  and  many  a  region  between,  the  Leopard  bears  the 
same  bad  character.  Feeding  largely  on  putrid  flesh,  its 
bite  more  often  than  not  causes  blood-poisoning  ;  and  it  is 
always  ready  to  satisfy  its  ravenous  appetite  with  anything, 
from  a  cow  to  a  bird  on  its  roost. 

In  Central  Asia  is  the  beautiful  Snow  Leopard  (Felis 
uncia),  or  Ounce,  the  colour  of  its  long  fur  being  white, 
clouded  with  a  delicate  grey  and  resetted  irregularly  with 
black.  The  tail  is  long  and  bushy.  A  lady  kept  one  as 
a  pet  for  a  long  time,  afterwards  transferring  it  to  the  Zoo, 
where  it  was  far  more  friendly  than  many  cats.  The  lion 
and  tiger,  too,  are  frequently  tamed,  but  such  animal  friend- 
ships often  end  in  dire  tragedy,  the  creatures  being  liable  at 
any  moment  to  be  impelled  by  some  wild  impulse  to  exhibit 
their  ingrained  ferocity. 

JAGUAE  (Felis  onca). 
Coloured  Plate  VI.  Fig.  4. 

Of  the  cats  inhabiting  the  New  World,  the  largest  and 
handsomest  is  the  Jaguar,  an  animal  which  the  European 
residents  invariably  miscall  by  the  name  of  tiger.  There  is 
no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  the  Jaguar  from  the  true 
leopards.  In  the  first  place,  when  full  grown,  it  is  not  much 
less  than  the  tiger  itself.  Moreover,  the  rosettes  of  dark 
spots  with  which  its  fur  is  adorned  have  a  black  spot  in  the 
centre  of  each  group.  Then,  when  the  animal  is  viewed  in 
front,  several  bold  black  stripes  are  seen  to  be  drawn  across 
the  breast  and  lower  portion  of  the  neck,  which  is  never  the 
case  with  the  leopards  of  the  Old  World. 

The  Jaguar  inhabits  nearly  the  whole  of  Central  and 
South  America  to  Southern  Brazil,  from  which  it  wanders 
to  the  pampas  of  the  Argentine,  attracted  thereto  doubtless 
by  the  vast  herds  of  cattle.  In  the  Amazon  valley  the 
animal  lives  largely  in  trees,  chasing  and  catching  even 
the  active  American  monkeys,  in  spite  of  their  additional 
limb  in  the  form  of  the  prehensile  tail.  It^would  not, 


THE  JAGUAR  127 

however,  be  so  successful  did  it  not  trade  upon  the  in- 
quisitive and  mischievous  nature  of  the  monkey  race.  They 
seem  positively  fascinated  by  the  presence  of  the  Jaguar, 
and  cannot  refrain  from  lingering  in  their  flight  or  even 
trying  to  slap  the  Jaguar  on  the  nose  as  they  fling  them- 
selves past  it.  The  Jaguar,  on  its  part,  bides  its  time,  and, 
swift  as  is  the  spring  of  the  monkey,  the  stroke  of  the  savage 
paw  is  swifter  still,  and  the  unfortunate  monkey  falls  a  victim 
to  its  own  vagaries.  So  swift,  indeed,  is  the  blow  of  the 
Jaguar's  paw  that  the  animal  will  take  its  place  at  a  shallow 
bend  of  a  river  and  scoop  out  the  fish  with  its  broad  paws. 
The  peccary,  capybara,  and,  in  fact,  any  creature  furred  or 
feathered,  are  all  preyed  upon  by  the  Jaguar. 

The  body  of  the  Jaguar  is  extremely  robust,  the  limbs 
short,  thick,  and  muscular  ;  the  head  large  and  square  ; 
and  its  whole  contour  lacks  the  supple  gracefulness  that  is 
so  characteristic  of  its  Old  World  cousin.  It  is  the  most 
formidable  of  the  American  beasts  of  prey  ;  for  though 
it  seldom  ventures  to  attack  man,  especially  if  on  his 
guard,  it  unsparingly  destroys  horses,  oxen,  and  other 
domestic  animals.  The  mode  of  killing  its  prey  is  in- 
variably the  same ;  it  leaps  upon  the  back  of  its  victim 
and  by  a  powerful  movement  of  the  forepaws  twists  the 
head  until  the  neck  is  broken.  It  is  said  that  it  attacks 
and  even  conquers  the  alligator  on  land,  but  that  in  the 
water  the  reptile  gains  the  mastery.  There  appears  never 
to  have  been  an  eye-witness  of  any  such  encounter;  but 
a  Jaguar  has  been  surprised  when  making  a  meal  off  an 
alligator. 

When  floods  drive  the  Jaguar  from  its  favourite  haunts 
and  it  finds  it  difficult  to  secure  animals  upon  which  to  sate 
its  ravenous  appetite,  it  will  attack  man  without  scruple. 
At  St.  Fe  two  priests  were  killed  as  they  entered  the  church, 
where  a  Jaguar  was  lying  in  wait  behind  the  door  ;  and 
more  than  one  traveller  can  vouch  for  men  having  been 
seized  and  carried  off  while  sitting  by  a  blazing  camp-fire. 

In  the  settled  regions  the  Jaguar  is  allowed  but  little 
scope  for  depredation.  No  sooner  is  evidence  given  of 
its  presence  in  a  district  than  a  hunting  party  is  arranged 
by  the  planters  and  ranchers,  and  they  do  not  rest  satisfied 


128  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

until  they  have  exterminated  the  unwelcome  visitor.  At 
any  rate,  there  are  not  now  two  thousand  Jaguar  skins 
exported  annually  from  Buenos  Ayres  alone,  as  Humboldt 
says  was  the  case  in  his  day,  when  he  calculated  that  quite 
four  thousand  Jaguars  were  killed  in  South  America  every 
year. 

PUMA  (Felts  concolor). 
Coloured  Plate  V.  Fig.  i. 

Few  animals  have  been  gifted  with  more  names  than 
the  Puma,  which  is  the  largest  American  cat  next  to 
the  jaguar.  Sometimes  it  is  called  the  Cougar,  but  it  is 
familiarly  known  by  the  names  of  Panther  (corrupted  into 
Painter)  and  the  Lion.  The  last  mentioned  name  has 
been  given  to  it  in  consequence  of  the  hue  of  its  fur, 
which  much  resembles  that  of  a  true  lion,  being  of  a 
uniform  dun.  Hence  the  specific  name,  concolor,  i.e., 
uniformly  coloured.  In  some  cases  the  animal's  coat 
cannot  fairly  be  described  as  dun,  being  more  of  a 
cinnamon  colour  tinged  with  gold,  while  the  belly  and 
chest  are  white. 

Being  able  to  endure  great  variations  of  temperature,  the 
Puma  has  a  wide  range,  extending  from  Montana  to  the 
south  of  Patagonia.  In  the  northern  animals  the  fur  shows 
a  marked  seasonal  change,  being  redder  in  tint  in  summer 
and  greyer  in  winter.  Strangely  enough,  the  fur  does  not 
lengthen  as  a  protection  against  the  cold,  as  does  that  of 
the  tiger  in  Central  Asia. 

The  Puma  is  much  smaller  than  any  of  the  preceding 
Felidae,  its  total  length  seldom  exceeding  six  and  a  half 
feet,  its  height  at  the  shoulder  being  about  twenty-five 
inches.  Considering  its  size,  it  is  undoubtedly  the  boldest 
and  fiercest  of  the  cats.  In  the  south  it  will  attack  the 
jaguar,  from  which  it  will  snatch  its  still  living  prey ;  and 
in  the  north,  with  equal  fierceness,  it  will  overcome  the 
grizzly  bear. 

In  addition  to  preying  upon  deer,  the  capybara,  viscacha, 
the  rhea  or  American  ostrich,  and  many  other  wild 
creatures,  the  South  American  Puma  is  a  terrible  scourge 


PLATE  VIII. 


i.     DOMESTIC    CAT. 
(See  page  131) 


2.     WILD    CAT    (SCOTLAND). 
(See  page  130) 


(Photo  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


PLATE  IX. 


i.     CARACAL.  2.     CARACAL    CUB. 

(See  page  133) 


3.     OCELOT. 
(See  page  130) 

(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


THE  PUMA  129 

to  horse,  sheep,  and  cattle  breeders  in  the  order  given ;  it 
has  a  mania  for  horseflesh,  and  the  herds  of  wild  horses 
are  in  danger  of  dying  out  owing  to  the  constant  loss  of 
their  colts.  The  northern  animal  is  said  to  eat  anything 
from  deer  to  mice  or  fish,  not  even  disdaining  the 
malodorous  skunk  or  the  prickly  porcupine. 

The  Gauchos  make  very  short  work  of  the  Puma  when 
they  encounter  it.  First  entangling  its  feet  in  the  bolas,  i.e., 
three  cords  knotted  together,  and  having  a  stone  or  metal 
ball  at  the  end  of  each  cord ;  and  then,  casting  the  noose 
of  a  lasso  over  it,  they  gallop  away  at  full  speed,  making  the 
helpless  body  rebound  from  the  earth  until  the  animal  is 
dead.  In  the  north  the  creature  is  relentlessly  hunted 
with  dogs,  treed,  and  shot. 

Notwithstanding  the  ferocious  attitude  of  the  Puma 
towards  quadrupeds  generally,  it  seldom  attacks  man,  and 
sometimes  will  not  even  defend  itself  against  him,  resigning 
itself  unresistingly  to  death  which  it  might  very  easily 
escape.  When  a  traveller  has  been  sleeping  in  a  hammock 
in  the  forest,  the  Puma  has  been  known  to  lie  on  the  ground 
underneath  him,  as  though  for  the  pleasure  of  human 
company.  Mr.  Hudson,  in  The  Naturalist  in  La  Plata, 
says  : — 

1  It  is  notorious  that  where  the  Puma  is  the  only  large 
beast  of  prey  it  is  perfectly  safe  for  a  small  child  to  go 
out  and  sleep  on  the  plain.  The  Puma  is  always  at  heart 
a  kitten,  taking  unmeasured  delight  in  its  frolics.'  There 
are  various  stories  in  proof  of  this  cat's  generally  harmless 
character  that  would  be  incredible  were  they  not  backed 
by  good  authority.  In  more  than  one  instance  a  traveller 
would  have  succumbed  to  the  attack  of  a  jaguar,  but  that 
a  Puma  came  to  the  rescue  and  put  the  bigger  carnivore 
to  flight. 

It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  such  pretty  instances 
of  amiability  on  the  part  of  the  South  America  Puma  are 
at  least  quite  equalled  in  number  by  those  in  which  the 
animal  displays  all  the  ferocity  of  its  race,  crouching  and 
springing  at  mankind  and  biting  and  scratching  in  the 
manner  characteristic  of  the  attacks  of  the  cats.  An  angry 
Puma  is  generally  an  opponent  to  be  feared.  Its  leaping 

10 


iso  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

powers  are  enormous  ;   it  can  reach  with  ease  the  bough 
of  a  tree  that  is  twenty  feet  from  the  ground. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  smaller  tiger  cats  and 
leopard  cats,  possessing  the  beautiful  coats  and  all  the 
bloodthirsty  characteristics  of  their  larger  brethren.  The 
Ocelot  (Felis  pardalis),  Plate  IX.  Fig.  3,  of  South  America 
has  a  body  three  feet  in  length  without  the  tail.  Its  fur 
is  a  mixture  of  grey  and  fawn,  upon  which  are  drawn 
longitudinal  partially  broken  bands  of  fawn,  black  at  the 
margins  ;  on  the  neck,  head,  and  inner  side  of  the  limbs  the 
bands  give  place  to  irregular  spots  and  dashes.  It  can  be 
easily  tamed  and  kept  as  a  pet.  Mr.  Waterton  had  one  for 
some  time,  and  found  it  very  useful  in  extirpating  rats. 

The  Fishing  Cat  (Felis  viverrina)  of  India  is  brownish 
grey  in  colour,  marked  with  dark  brown  or  black  spots. 
It  is  supposed  to  live  largely  upon  fish,  but  although  it 
is  only  two  and  a  half  feet  in  length  from  the  nose  to  the 
root  of  the  tail,  it  is  fully  capable  of  destroying  calves,  sheep, 
and  dogs,  and  upon  occasion  carries  off  a  Hindoo  baby. 
There  is  one  very  well  authenticated  instance  of  the  Fishing 
Cat's  ferocity.  A  newly  captured  male  broke  into  a  neigh- 
bouring cage,  where  it  destroyed  a  tame  female  leopard  that 
was  quite  twice  its  size. 

The  Serval  (Felis  serval),  Plate  X.  Fig.  3,  is  a  spotted 
tawny  cat  with  longer  legs  than  the  foregoing.  The  tail  is 
ringed  with  black.  It  is  found  from  Algeria  to  the  Cape. 
It  feeds  mainly  on  hares,  rabbits,  rats,  birds,  &c.,  but  it  is 
large  enough  to  pull  down  and  kill  the  young  of  the  smaller 
antelopes. 

WILD  CAT  (Felis  catus). 
Plate  VIII.  Fig.  2. 

The  Wild  Cat  of  Europe  is  one  of  the  oldest  inhabitants 
of  Britain,  but  was  never  known  in  Ireland.  It  is  now 
practically  extinct  in  England,  but  still  lingers  in  some  parts 
of  Scotland.  When  one  hears  of  a  Wild  Cat  being  seen  or 
captured  in  any  other  part  of  the  country,  it  is  almost  sure 
to  be  but  a  feral  cat,  or  one  that  has  abandoned  domesti- 


THE  WILD  CAT 


cated   habits  for   a   free   life  in  the  woods.     Animals  that 
revert   to   a  wild  state  soon   become  astonishingly  fierce. 

It  is  a  matter  for  congratulation  that  the  Wild  Cat  is 
on  the  verge  of  extinction,  and  the  last  one  will  be  allowed 
to  depart  without  regret,  if  it  is  only  half  as  bad  as  Mr. 
Pennant  painted  it :  *  The  Wild  Cat  may  be  called  the 
British  tiger ;  it  is  the  fiercest  and  most  destructive  beast 
we  have,  making  dreadful  havoc  amongst  our  poultry, 
lambs,  and  kids.  It  inhabits  the  most  mountainous  and 
woody  parts  of  these  islands,  living  mostly  in  trees,  and 
feeding  only  by  night.'  Upon  occasion  the  animal  proved 
its  bad  character  to  be  understated,  for  in  the  church  at 
Barnborough,  in  Yorkshire,  was  formerly  a  rude  painting 
that  testified  to  the  fact  that  a  man  died  in  the  church 
porch  after  being  attacked  by  a 
cat.  Even  in  captivity  the  crea- 
ture remains  absolutely  intractable 
after  years  of  confinement. 

The  Wild  Cat  ranges  from  the 
north  of  Scotland  across  Europe 
and  Northern  Asia  to  the 
northern  slope  of  the  Himalayas. 
In  colour  its  soft  and  thick  fur  is 
usually  grey  or  yellowish,  with  a 
black  streak  running  down  the 
back,  from  which  fall  transverse 
stripes  down  the  sides;  the  tail  is  ringed  with  black.  In- 
cluding the  rather  short  tail  with  its  obtuse  end,  the  animal 
is  about  three  feet  in  length. 

DOMESTIC   CAT   (Felis  domesticus). 
Plate  VIII.  Fig.  i. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  at  what  period  cats  became 
domesticated,  but  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  Egyptians 
were  the  first  to  make  use  of  their  undoubted  good  qualities. 

The  Domestic  Cat  is  smaller  than  its  wild  progenitor,  and 
shows  endless  variations  in  colour  in  the  different  breeds. 
Those  most  valued  are  the  Persian  variety.  No  animal 
exhibits  more  maternal  fondness  for  its  young ;  and  it 


TEETH   OF  THE  DOMESTIC  CAT. 
(Natural  size.) 


i32  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE   LAND 

is  an  exceedingly  clean  animal.  Though  the  cat  is  the 
most  familiar  of  our  domestic  creatures  it  does  not  attach 
itself  to  persons  nearly  so  much  as  to  houses.  Thanks  to 
its  inherent  hunting  habits  it  is  extremely  useful  as  a 
vermin-killer.  Notwithstanding  that  by  descent  it  is  a  true 
carnivore,  the  Domestic  Cat  will  eat  vegetable  food. 

LYNX   (Felis  lynx). 
Coloured  Plate  VI.  Fig.  3. 

Some  naturalists  consider  that  the  several  species  of  Lynx 
ought  to  form  a  distinct  genus  in  themselves.  They  are 
decidedly  less  cat-like  than  any  of  the  members  of  the 
family  already  described,  especially  in  their  longer  legs, 
shorter  tail,  and  pointed  and  tufted  ears.  The  Lynx  is  a 
thickset,  square-headed  animal,  three  to  four  feet  long, 
exclusive  of  the  tail,  with  very  strong  paws  and  forearms. 

The  Common,  or  European,  Lynx  is  found  right  across 
the  northern  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia,  extending  as  far 
south  as  the  Alps,  Carpathians,  Caucasus,  and  Persia. 
Owing  to  its  great  range  and  its  ability  to  live  in  either  very 
hot  or  very  cold  countries,  there  is  considerable  variation  in 
colour.  The  Common  Lynx  has  soft,  thick  fur,  greyish 
or  reddish  in  tint,  and  usually  marked  with  black  spots. 
The  Southern,  or  Spanish,  Lynx  (Felis  pardina)  is  of  a 
redder  shade,  while  the  animal  of  Central  Asia  is  paler  and 
more  uniform. 

It  is  mainly  a  nocturnal  forest-dweller,  hunting  small 
mammals  and  birds,  following  them  even  up  to  the  tops  of 
trees.  It  is  the  most  destructive  of  the  carnivores  now  left 
to  plague  Europe.  To  sheep  and  goats  it  is  a  relentless 
enemy,  killing  an  animal  instantly,  devouring  but  a  small 
portion  of  the  body  and  leaving  the  rest.  A  single  Lynx  has 
been  known  to  slay  forty  sheep  in  the  space  of  a  few  weeks. 

Being  seldom  seen,  the  animal  is  but  little  hunted  unless 
it  makes  forays  on  the  live  stock  of  settled  districts.  In 
Norway  the  Lynx  is  now  rather  rare,  but  it  has  a  worse 
character  than  the  wolf,  and  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula  it 
works  considerable  mischief  among  the  flocks. 


THE  CHEETAH  133 

The  Canadian  Lynx  (Felis  canadensis)  is  a  timid,  cowardly 
creature  that  is  more  or  less  common  in  the  forest  regions 
of  Canada  about  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Circle.  It 
seldom  attacks  any  of  the  larger  quadrupeds,  preferring  to 
subsist  chiefly  upon  the  hare.  In  this  region  the  animal  is 
hunted  for  its  fur,  and  when  face  to  face  with  the  hunter  it 
rarely  does  more  than  set  up  its  hair  and  spit  like  an  angry 
cat ;  but  a  blow  on  its  back  is  generally  sufficient  to  give  it 
its  quietus.  Lynx  skins  at  one  time  were  sent  to  England 
in  thousands  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  but  the  animal 
now  exists  in  greatly  diminished  numbers. 

The  Caracal  (Felis  caracal),  Plate  IX.  Figs,  i  and  2,  the 
handsomest  of  the  Lynx  tribe,  is  elegant  in  shape,  light 
chestnut  in  colour,  and  not  spotted  as  are  many  others  of 
its  kind.  It  is  found  throughout  Africa,  Arabia,  Persia, 
India,  and  Tibet.  In  size  it  is  considerably  less  than  the 
Common  Lynx.  In  the  East  the  Caracal  is  trained  to 
catch  hares  and  birds,  such  as  peafowl  and  cranes. 

CHEETAH  (Cynalurus  jubatus). 
Coloured  Plate  VI.  Fig.  2. 

The  Cheetah  is  found  throughout  south-western  Asia  and 
in  many  parts  of  India,  while  a  variety  only  differing  in  its 
fur  is  found  in  Africa,  especially  in  the  dry,  open  plateaus 
of  Somaliland,  East,  and  South  Africa.  In  the  last-named 
region  the  animal  is  known  as  the  Woolly  Cheetah  (Cynce- 
lurus  laned). 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Cheetah  belongs  to  the 
Felidae.  Its  dentition  is  the  same  as  in  the  leopard,  but  it 
is  a  slenderer  animal,  with  a  smaller  head  and  longer  legs. 
There  is,  however,  a  marked  difference  in  the  claws,  which 
are  only  semi-retractile,  which  has  caused  modern  naturalists 
to  place  the  animal  in  a  distinct  genus. 

The  ochreous  yellow  fur  is  rather  coarse  and  somewhat 
long  on  the  neck  and  shoulders,  forming  almost  a  mane,  as 
indicated  in  the  specific  name.  The  body  and  limbs  are 
covered  with  circular  black  markings  without  pale  centres ; 
on  the  under-parts  the  colouring  fades  to  white.  Standing 


i34  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

about  three  feet  high  at  the  shoulder  and  with  an  extreme 
length  of  seven  feet,  the  Cheetah  is  well  set  up  and  exhibits 
nothing  of  the  crouching  gait  that  is  a  common  feature 
of  the  cats ;  nevertheless,  the  leopard  itself  is  not  more 
secretive  and  stealthy. 

The  chief  point  of  interest  concerning  the  Cheetah  is  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  pressed  into  the  service  of  man. 
When  it  is  captured  it  is  reduced  to  submission  by  starving 
it  and  keeping  it  awake,  until  it  becomes  pitifully  abject  and 
ready  to  be  trained  to  engage  in  antelope-hunting,  which  is 
the  favourite  sport  of  the  wealthy  natives  of  India. 

The  Cheetah,  or  Hunting  Leopard,  as  it  is  called,  which 
soon  learns  its  business  as  well  as  any  falcon,  is  placed  on 
a  low  car,  where  it  sits  quietly  by  the  side  of  its  trainer. 
When  a  party  of  antelopes  is  seen  the  sportsman  drives 
towards  them,  but  not  making  directly  for  their  position. 
Being  accustomed  to  seeing  these  vehicles,  which  are  con- 
stantly used  by  the  native  agriculturists,  the  antelopes  take 
no  notice  of  the  car,  but  allow  it  to  pass  within  a  hundred 
yards  or  so.  Choosing  some  spot  which  will  afford  cover 
to  the  Cheetah,  the  keeper  removes  the  bandage  from  the 
animal's  eyes  and  points  out  the  antelopes. 

The  Cheetah  immediately  slips  off  the  car,  taking  care  to 
do  so  on  the  side  opposite  the  antelopes,  and  creeps  swiftly 
and  warily  towards  them,  skilfully  availing  itself  of  any 
cover  on  its  way.  When  it  has  crept  as  closely  as  it  can  do 
without  discovery,  it  dashes  boldly  upon  the  antelopes,  and 
with  a  few  tremendous  bounds  flings  itself  upon  the  nearest 
animal,  bearing  it  to  the  ground.  The  keeper  immediately 
runs  up  and  cuts  the  antelope's  throat,  so  as  to  make  it 
lawful  meat.  He  then  either  cuts  off  a  piece  of  the  leg,  or 
fills  a  ladle  with  the  blood  and  offers  it  to  the  hunting  cat. 
While  the  Cheetah  is  busied  with  its  food  the  keeper  slips 
the  hood  over  its  eyes,  replaces  it  on  the  car,  and  looks 
out  for  more  game. 

FAMILY   HY^ENID^E   (HYAENAS). 

The  remarkable  animals  called  Hyenas  in  some  respects 
form  a  link  between  the  cats  and  dogs.  The  skull  is  cat- 


THE  HYAENA  FAMILY 


like,  while  the  claws,  four  on  each  foot,  not  being  retractile, 
resemble  those  of  the  dog.  They  form  a  small  but  impor- 
tant group,  which,  like  the  rest  of  the  animal  kingdom,  can 
only  exist  where  their  work  lies.  Their  special  office  is  to 
remove  from  the  earth  the  carcasses  and  bones  of  the  larger 
animals  after  death.  For  example,  if  a  camel  should  die, 
the  vultures,  jackals,  and  other  creatures  begin  to  consume 
the  soft  parts  almost  before  the  breath  is  out  of  it.  But  the 
bones  are  beyond  their  power,  and  in  order  to  remove  them 
we  have  the  Hyaenas,  whose  jaws  and  teeth  are  formed  for 
the  express  purpose  of  crushing  the  bones,  which  no  other 
animal  can  break.  The  thigh-bone  of  a  buffalo  will  be 
smashed  almost  with  the 
sound  of  the  report  of  a 
pistol-shot.  It  must  not, 
however,  be  supposed  that 
the  Hyaena  scavenger  is 
restricted  to  bones ;  quite 
as  often  as  not  it  is  on  the 
scene  early  to  do  its  share 
of  the  picking. 

It  is  quite  evident  that  the 
Hyaena  must  possess  parti- 
cularly strong  teeth,  with 
massive  jaws  and  powerful 
muscles  to  work  them  ;  the 
enormous  bony  ridges  on 
the  top  of  the  skull  mark  the  tremendous  power  in  the 
jaw,  since  they  indicate  the  size  of  the  muscles  which  are 
attached  to  them.  The  teeth,  of  which  there  are  four  more 
than  in  the  cats,  are  large  and  strong ;  the  canines  are 
smaller  and  the  outermost  incisors  are  much  longer  than 
in  the  Felidae,  and  some  of  the  molar  teeth  have  three 
cutting  edges.  The  tongue  is  set  with  prickly,  spike-like 
Papilla,  which  form  a  powerful  rasp. 

The  Hyaena  is  notable  for  the  great  development  of  the 
front  part  of  the  body  and  the  very  small  size  of  the  hind- 
quarters, which  fall  away  rapidly  and  give  the  animal  a 
peculiarly  slinking  gait.  This  peculiar  formation  is  visible 
even  in  the  skeleton.  Its  character  does  not  belie  its 


SKULL  OF  THE  HY^NA. 
(About  one-fifth  natural  size.) 


136  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

appearance,  for,  in  spite  of  its  terrible  jaws,  it  is  a  cowardly 
creature.  Only  when  driven  to  bay  will  it  turn  upon  its 
foes  and  fight  with  desperate  courage,  but  as  a  rule  it  will 
not  attack  any  enemy  which  will  boldly  face  it. 

The  Hyaena  is  the  veriest  pariah  of  the  animal  world, 
and  few  writers  are  able  to  say  anything  too  scathing 
concerning  it.  In  his  book  upon  lion-hunting  in  Algeria, 
Jules  Gerard  states  that  the  Arabs  hold  the  animal  in  utter 
contempt,  and  think  that  if  any  weapon  of  war,  such  as  a 
rifle,  a  sword,  or  a  spear,  be  used  against  a  Hyaena,  that 
weapon  will  desert  its  owner  in  the  day  of  battle.  Some 
Arabs,  however,  are  less  punctilious,  and  will  not  hesitate 
to  eat  the  flesh  of  the  animal,  although  it  is  so  rank  and 
offensive  that  even  a  hungry  dog  will  not  relish  it. 

There  are  three  species  of  Hyaena,  neither  of  which  is 
now  found  in  Europe,  though  the  unlovely  carnivore  once 
ranged  the  Continent,  and  spread  right  across  Asia  to  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific. 


STRIPED   HY-ffiNA  (Hycena  striata). 
Coloured  Plate  VII.  Fig.  i. 

The  Striped  Hyaena  inhabits  a  large  portion  of  Africa 
from  Senegal  to  Abyssinia,  and  thence  into  Asia  Minor, 
Persia,  and  India  as  far  as  the  Himalaya.  Of  a  dirty-grey 
colour,  with  darkish  transverse  stripes  on  the  sides  and 
limbs,  the  animal  is  about  five  feet  in  length,  including  the 
tail.  It  is  the  size  of  a  large  mastiff,  with  head  and  neck 
of  great  thickness  and  enormous  strength.  Owing  to  the 
bowed  and  proportionately  weak  hind  legs,  its  walk  is  a 
shuffling,  awkward  pace,  but  it  can  run  with  great  celerity. 

Only  the  Striped  Hyaena  is  found  in  India.  It  is  a 
solitary  animal,  and  rarely  are  more  than  two  seen 
together.  It  feeds  principally  at  night,  and  conceals  itself 
during  the  day  in  its  den,  among  ruins,  craggy  rocks,  or 
lonely  thickets.  As  evening  draws  in  the  animal  com- 
mences its  prowl,  haunting  the  streets  of  villages  and 
towns,  where  it  devours  the  offal  and  bones,  for  in  many 
Eastern  cities  the  inhabitants  pay  little  heed  to  sanitary 


THE  STRIPED  HYAENA  137 

matters.  Cemeteries  are  favourite  resorts,  and  from  freshly 
filled  in  graves  it  will  drag  out  the  bodies  that  are  not  buried 
deeply.  And  all  the  time  the  hungry  beast  is  on  the  look 
out  for  living  prey,  especially  the  ass,  which  is  its  favourite 
food,  while  cattle  of  all  kinds  are  ravenously  devoured. 

During  the  ruthless  wars  which  formerly  constantly  took 
place  among  the  barbarous  nations  of  Africa,  Hyaenas  and 
vultures  were  regular  attendants  upon  the  field  of  battle. 
The  dead  were  left  unburied,  the  vultures  gorged  their  fill, 
and  the  Hyaenas  completed  the  work,  so  as  scarcely  to  leave 
a  bone  to  commemorate  the  slaughter. 

In  modern  times  matters  have  improved,  but  it  is  in- 
teresting to  note  the  testimony  of  Bruce  concerning  his 
encounters  with  the  Hyaena.  '  They  were,'  says  he,  *  the 
scourge  of  Abyssinia.  From  evening  till  the  dawn  the 
town  of  Gondar  was  full  of  them.  Here  they  sought 
the  different  pieces  of  slaughtered  carcasses  which  were 
exposed  in  the  streets  without  burial.  Many  a  time  when 
the  King  had  kept  me  late  in  the  palace,  on  going  across 
the  square,  I  have  been  apprehensive  lest  they  should  bite 
me  in  the  leg.  They  grunted  in  great  numbers  around  me, 
although  I  was  accompanied  by  several  armed  men,  who 
seldom  passed  a  night  without  wounding  or  slaughtering 
some  of  them. 

'One  night  I  went  out  of  my  tent  and,  returning  imme- 
diately, I  perceived  two  large  blue  eyes  glaring  at  me  in  the 
dark.  I  called  my  servant  to  bring  a  light,  and  we  found  a 
Hyaena  standing  near  the  head  of  the  bed  with  two  or  three 
large  bunches  of  candles  in  his  mouth,  by  keeping  which 
he  seemed  to  wish  at  that  time  no  other  prey.  I  was  not 
afraid  of  him,  and  with  a  pike  struck  him  as  near  the  heart 
as  I  could.  It  was  not  until  I  had  done  this  that  he  showed 
any  signs  of  fierceness,  but,  upon  feeling  his  wound,  he 
dropped  the  candles  and  endeavoured  to  run  upon  the 
shaft  of  the  spear  to  arrive  at  me,  so  that  I  was  obliged 
to  draw  a  pistol  from  my  girdle  and  shoot  him,  and  nearly 
at  the  same  time  my  servant  cleft  his  skull  with  a  battle-axe. 
In  a  word,  the  Hyaenas  were  the  plague  of  our  lives,  the 
terror  of  our  night  walks,  and  the  destruction  of  our  mules 
and  asses,  which  are  their  favourite  food.' 


138  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

A  few  writers  maintain  that  no  wild  animal  is  more  easily 
tamed  or  exhibits  more  affection,  and  Bishop  Heber  re- 
corded that  in  India  he  saw  a  Hyaena  which  followed  a 
gentleman  about  like  a  dog,  and  fawned  on  those  with 
whom  it  was  acquainted.  Cuvier,  that  close  observer  of 
animals,  believed  that  in  a  domestic  state  the  Hyaena  would 
'  doubtless  render  to  man  services  of  the  same  kind  and 
degree  as  the  canine  species.' 

SPOTTED   HY.EINA  (Hycena  crocuta). 
Coloured  Plate  VII.  Fig.  2. 

The  Spotted  Hyaena  roams  all  over  Africa  between  a 
line  drawn  from  Senegal  to  Abyssinia  and  Natal,  where  a 
few  are  still  to  be  found.  It  is  more  massively  built,  and 
is  larger,  stronger,  fiercer,  and  more  aggressive  than  its 
northern  cousin.  It  measures  as  much  as  six  feet  in 
length,  including  the  sixteen-inch  tail,  and  stands  nearly 
three  feet  high  at  the  shoulder.  Its  front  and  hind  legs  are 
not  so  unequal  in  length,  and  consequently  its  gait  is  less 
ungainly.  Its  usual  cry  is  a  horrible  maniacal  sound  that 
has  gained  for  it  the  name  of  the  '  Laughing  Hyaena,' 
although  in  South  Africa  it  is  far  more  often  mistakenly 
called  the  Wolf  or  Tiger-wolf. 

Unlike  the  Striped  species,  the  Spotted  Hyaena  largely 
hunts  in  packs,  carrying  off  the  animals  of  travellers  that 
are  tethered  near  the  camp,  seizing  sheep  and  calves  out  of 
the  herds,  and  even  snatching  children  from  the  arms  of 
their  sleeping  mothers.  Its  appetite  is  most  voracious,  and 
the  animal  welcomes,  if  it  does  not  prefer,  putrid  and 
decaying  flesh. 

The  statement  requires  corroboration,  but  some  travellers 
assert  that  the  Hyaena  stores  up  fresh  food  until  it  is  suffi- 
ciently tainted  to  tickle  its  palate.  Bearing  this  in  mind 
was  rvnce  the  means  of  saving  a  hunter's  life.  While  he  was 
unanhed  he  fell  in  with  a  troop  of  Hyaenas,  and  with  great 
presence  of  mind  lay  down  and  shammed  death.  The 
animals  examined  him,  turning  him  over  with  their  grue- 
some snouts,  and  one  gaunt  creature  bit  him  on  the  thigh, 


Plate  VII. 


1.  Striped  Hyaena 


THE  SPOTTED  HYAENA  139 

as  if  to  test  the  toothsomeness  of  the  prospective  meal. 
The  hunter  concluded  that  he  was  considered  too  fresh 
for  immediate  use,  for  presently  several  of  the  Hyaenas 
took  hold  of  him  and  carried  him  a  considerable  distance 
to  a  cave,  where  he  was  dumped  down  in  what  the  hunter's 
olfactory  senses  told  him  was  the  troop's  larder.  It  was  a 
ghastly  situation.  The  vile  odour  of  the  reeking  spot 
nauseated  him,  and  yet  he  dare  scarcely  breathe  lest  the 
savage  beasts  should  turn  upon  him  and  rend  him. 

At  last  the  Hyaenas  took  their  departure — all  save  one 
animal  that  was  left  to  guard  the  meat  store.  As  the  man 
lay  in  the  foul  den  he  racked  his  brains  how  he  might  evade 
the  watchful  animal  that  was  stationed  at  the  mouth  of  the 
cave.  At  intervals  the  Hyaena  came  and  smelt  him,  until  at 
the  end  of  forty-eight  hours  the  custodian  of  the  larder  set 
off  to  join  the  troop  in  a  foraging  excursion,  or  may  be  to 
lay  information  that  the  body  was  now  deserving  of  serious 
attention.  Which  surmise  was  correct  the  prisoner  did  not 
stay  to  observe;  he  at  once  got  on  a  trail  that  would  lead 
him  to  safety  in  an  entirely  opposite  direction. 

Sir  Samuel  Baker  describes  how  a  Hyaena  paid  a  visit  to 
his  tent  at  midnight.  Lady  Baker  awoke  her  husband  to 
inform  him  that  one  of  the  animals  had  been  in  the  tent, 
but  had  bolted  when  she  made  an  involuntary  movement. 
The  explorer's  chief  fear  was  that  the  beast  would  return 
and  eat  their  saddles,  so  he  lay  back  in  bed  with  his  rifle 
to  his  shoulder.  In  a  few  minutes  the  wary  creature  was 
again  at  the  door,  thrown  into  strong  relief  by  the  brilliant 
moonshine  at  its  back.  The  explorer  seized  the  opportunity, 
the  trigger  clicked,  and  the  animal  fell  dead. 

It  is  said  that  in  some  of  the  well  hunted  big-game  regions 
the  Hyaena  has  increased  rather  than  decreased  in  numbers 
in  recent  years.  The  beast  prefers  to  pick  up  its  food  ready 
killed  rather  than  hunt  it  for  itself.  Frequently  wounded 
animals  escape  into  dense  cover,  only  to  die  where  the 
sportsman  cannot  find  them  ;  but  the  Hyaena  follows  up  the 
blood  trail,  to  find  a  meal  without  any  more  trouble  than  is 
entailed  in  the  eating  of  it.  In  addition  to  this,  many  large 
animals  are  shot,  and  when  they  have  been  skinned  the 
carcasses  are  useless  to  the  hunter ;  and  thus  every  season 


i4o  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

the  Hyaena  finds  itself  in  a  perfect  paradise  of  easily 
acquired  food,  which  draws  still  more  of  its  tribe  to  the 
region. 

AARD  WOLF  (Proteles  cristatus). 
Plate  XIV.  Fig.  2. 

The  Aard  Wolf  of  South  Africa  is  sometimes  classed  with 
the  hyaenas  and  sometimes  with  the  civets.  It  really 
belongs  to  neither,  and  is  rightly  placed  in  an  intermediate 
group,  called  the  Protelidce.  It  is  by  no  means  a  large 
animal,  its  extreme  length  being  about  three  feet  six  inches. 
Its  colour  is  yellowish  gray,  banded  with  dark  stripes.  The 
Aard  Wolf,  i.e.,  the  Earth  Wolf,  is  a  mighty  burrower  and 
sometimes  excavates  a  common  habitation,  almost  if  not 
quite  unique  in  zoology.  Several  of  the  animals  will  dig  as 
many  burrows,  but  they  will  terminate  in  a  common 
chamber,  though  each  appropriates  to  its  own  use  the  tunnel 
which  it  has  dug.  Carrion  and  white  ants  form  the  chief 
food  of  this  hyaena-like  animal. 

FAMILY   VIVERRID/E   (CIVETS  AND 
ICHNEUMONS). 

This  Old  World  family  of  animals  includes  the  Civet, 
Ichneumon,  Mongoose,  Genet,  Paradoxure,  and  several 
others.  The  family  gains  its  name  from  the  civet,  or  pale 
yellow  fatty  substance  which  is  secreted  in  two  little  pouches 
just  under  the  tail  of  the  true  Civet.  Most  of  the  animals 
are  sharp-muzzled,  long  in  the  body  and  short  in  the  leg. 
They  have  five  toes  on  each  foot,  and  while  some  of  them 
have  the  walk  of  the  true  cats,  others  are  but  semi-planti- 
grade; the  iclaws,  too,  are  only  imperfectly  retractile.  The 
jaws  are  not  so  strong  as  in  the  cat  tribe,  but  there  are  ten 
more  teeth,  six  extra  premolars  and  four  additional  molars, 
making  a  total  of  forty  as  compared  to  the  thirty  of  the 
cat.  The  shape  of  the  teeth  likewise  differs  considerably ; 
the  canines  are  less  pronounced,  and  the  grinders,  losing 
their  shear-like  action,  have  their  surfaces  raised  in  little 
lumps  or  cusps. 


THE  CIVETS  141 

CIVET  (Viverra  civetta). 
Coloured  Plate  VIII.  Fig.  i. 

This  animal,  a  native,  of  tropical  Africa,  and  especially 
common  in  Abyssinia,  is  generally  known  as  the  Civet  Cat. 
It  varies  considerably  in  size,  but  averages  two  to  three  feet 
in  length  without  the  fairly  long  tail ;  the  height  is  from  ten 
to  twelve  inches.  In  colour  it  is  yellowish-grey,  marked 
by  dark  blotches  and  broken  dark  streaks  ;  the  tail  is  darkly 
ringed,  the  bands  getting  fainter  towards  the  tip.  The 
Civet  of  India  (Viverra  zibetha),  Southern  China,  and  parts 
of  Malaysia  is  a  slightly  bigger  animal,  with  stripes  replacing 


SKELETON  OF  THE  CIVET. 
(One-tenth  natural  size.) 

the  spots,  and  the  tail  is  marked  by  only  five  or  six  broad 
bands  of  white. 

In  habits  the  two  animals  are  very  similar,  hiding  in 
woods  or  thick  grass  during  the  day,  wandering  into  the 
open  at  night,  when  they  explore  the  neighbourhood  of 
habitations.  They  are  very  destructive  to  small  mammals 
and  birds,  preying  upon  fowls  and  ducks  whenever 
opportunity  offers,  but  also  feeding  on  snakes,  frogs, 
insects,  eggs,  roots  and  fruits. 

The  Civet,  of  either  species,  when  captured,  is  placed  in 
a  cage  too  small  to  allow  it  to  turn  round,  and  two  or  three 
times  a  week  the  secretion  is  removed  from  the  scent  glands 
with  a  spoon.  At  Enfras,  in  Abyssinia,  multitudes  of  Civets 
were  kept  in  captivity  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the 
markets  with  material  for  use  in  perfumery ;  Buffon  states 
that  the  Dutch  also  kept  large  numbers  of  the  animals. 


142  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

When  civet  is  mixed  with  other  substances  in  certain 
proportions,  the  offensive  strength  of  the  perfume  changes 
into  an  odour,  aromatic  and  fragrant.  It  is  less  used  now 
than  formerly,  but  it  is  still  employed  in  the  preparation  of 
various  scents,  and  as  much  as  forty  shillings  an  ounce  is 
paid  for  the  substance. 


ICHNEUMON  (Herpestes  ichneumon). 
Coloured  Plate  VIII.  Fig.  2. 

The  Ichneumon  of  Northern  Africa,  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  South  of  Spain  is  the  creature  about  which  so  many 
improbable  stories  have  been  told.  Stripping  the  *  travellers' 
tales'  of  their  exaggerations,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the 
Ichneumon  is  a  terrible  foe  to  the  crocodile,  discovering  the 
eggs  which  the  reptile  has  buried  in  the  sand  and  destroy- 
ing them  without  mercy.  As  the  egg  of  the  crocodile  is 
extremely  small,  the  Ichneumon  is  obliged  to  eat  many  of 
them  before  its  hunger  is  satisfied,  and  so  the  number  of 
crocodiles  is  sensibly  diminished  by  this  one  animal. 

The  Ichneumon  does  not  depend  wholly  upon  the  eggs 
for  its  subsistence,  but  feeds  on  rats,  mice,  lizards,  and 
snakes.  It  is  easily  tamed,  and  was  formerly  kept  in  houses, 
just  as  we  keep  cats,  for  the  purpose  of  ridding  them  of 
vermin.  Even  at  the  present  day  it  is  sometimes  kept  for 
the  same  purpose.  The  reader  will  observe  that  the  long, 
lithe  body,  snake-like  neck,  and  slender  head  are  exactly 
adapted  for  following  its  prey  into  their  hiding-places.  The 
word  'ichneumon'  signifies  a  ' tracker.' 

The  common  Ichneumon,  or  Pharaoh's  Rat,  as  it  is  often 
wrongly  called,  is  the  largest  of  the  species,  measuring  a  few 
inches  over  three  feet,  the  tail  accounting  for  nearly  half  of 
it.  It  is  peculiarly  graceful  and  easy  in  its  movements,  and 
endowed  with  surprising  agility  ;  when  irritated  or  about  to 
spring  on  its  prey,  its  eyes  become  vivid,  its  hair  erect,  and 
its  whole  aspect  betrays  great  eagerness  and  ferocity.  The 
fur  of  the  little  animal  is  of  a  uniform  silvery  grey,  the 
tip  of  the  tail  being  black  ;  but  each  hair  of  the  body,  if 
examined  separately,  will  be  found  ringed  with  white,  dark, 


Plate  VIII. 


1.  Civet 


S.Arctic  Fox 


THE  MONGOOSE  143 

and  fawn  colour  ;  its  eyes  are  red,  small,  and  sparkling  ;  its 
voice  is  soft  and  murmuring,  and  it  often  sits  up  like  a 
squirrel  in  feeding. 


MONGOOSE  (Herpes tes  mungo). 
Coloured  Plate  VIII.  Fig.  3. 

The  Mongoose,  or  Mungoose,  is  a  native  of  India,  and 
in  spite  of  its  natural  fierceness  is  quite  popular  as  a 
domestic  pet  on  account  of  its  snake-destroying  habits, 
which  make  it  very  useful  in  that  serpent-haunted  country. 
It  is  rather  a  smaller  animal  than  the  ichneumon.  Even 
in  England  the  Indian  Ichneumon,  as  it  is  termed,  is  some- 
times kept  as  a  pet,  and  if  purchased  when  young  is  as 
pretty,  playful,  and  affectionate  a  creature  as  can  be 
imagined. 

Mrs.  Brightwen,  that  well-known  lover  of  animals,  kept 
one  for  years  that  did  not  so  much  as  wear  a  collar  to 
remind  him  of  captivity.  '  He  is  never  so  happy  as  when 
curled  up  in  the  lap  of  some  indulgent  friend ;  yet,  as 
he  unfortunately  looks  like  a  ferret,  many  people  find  it 
very  hard  to  believe  that  he  can  be  perfectly  harmless/ 

Though  '  Mungo '  would  sometimes  absent  himself  for 
hours,  he  always  returned  home,  except  upon  one  occasion 
when  he  got  caught  in  a  steel  trap,  which  necessitated 
the  amputation  of  a  paw.  So  well  did  the  wound  heal  that 
the  limp  could  hardly  be  observed,  and  the  little  creature 
was  as  merry  as  ever,  scampering  about  and  playing  with 
his  own  tail  as  lively  as  any  kitten. 

When  bitten  in  its  fights  with  poisonous  snakes,  the 
Hindus  and  Egyptians  believe  that  the  Mongoose  has 
recourse  to  some  plant  as  an  antidote  to  the  poison.  In 
reality  the  nimble  creature  is  very  rarely  bitten  at  all, 
avoiding  the  darts  of  the  snake  with  wonderful  adroitness. 
In  any  case  it  would  be  difficult  for  the  reptile  to  drive 
its  fangs  through  the  harsh  hair  and  thick  skin  of  the 
Mongoose,  which,  however,  is  not  afraid  of  a  dose  of 
poison,  for  it  will  eat  a  cobra's  head,  poison  glands  and  all. 

Rats  are  another  pet  aversion  of  the  Mongoose,  which 


i44  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

has  been  employed  on  many  occasions  to  rid  ships  of  the 
vermin,  &c.  In  1871  the  sugar  plantations  of  Jamaica  were 
plagued  by  rats,  until  nine  Mongooses  were  turned  loose 
in  the  island.  Within  a  few  months  their  numbers  were 
increased  considerably,  and  very  speedily  the  effect  was 
visible  ;  fewer  rats  were  caught  in  traps,  and  fewer  canes 
were  destroyed.  From  that  time  the  island  ceased  to 
trouble  about  the  rats,  but  as  the  Mongoose  had  still  to 
get  a  living  for  itself  and  family,  it  behoved  the  planter 
to  watch  his  henroosts ;  but  it  is  easier  to  keep  a  Mongoose 
out  of  enclosed  premises  than  it  is  to  keep  rats  out  of  open 
plantations. 

Closely  allied  to  the  civet  is  the  Genet  (Genetta  vulgaris), 
Plate  X.  Fig.  2,  with  its  still  more  weasel-like  body, 
slender  and  elongated,  its  short  limbs,  and  sharp  pointed 
muzzle.  It  is  a  native  of  Africa,  north  of  the  Sahara,  which 
separates  the  animals  of  a  great  part  of  the  continent  in 
the  north  from  those  of  the  equatorial  belt,  as  effectively 
as  though  the  wilderness  of  sand  was  one  of  the  great 
oceans.  The  animal  also  extends  into  Syria  and  the 
southern  countries  of  Europe,  where  it  is  largely  domesti- 
cated for  the  purpose  of  destroying  rats  and  mice,  lizards, 
snakes,  &c.,  which  often  infest  houses  in  warm  countries. 
Owing  to  the  shortness  of  its  legs,  the  Genet  can  make 
its  way  into  very  restricted  spaces  in  search  of  its  prey. 
It  is  a  beautiful  grey  animal  spotted  with  brown,  with 
a  black  muzzle  and  a  ringed  tail.  The  Genet  possesses  a 
scent  pouch  a  little  more  pronounced  than  the  ichneumon's, 
but  still  very  inferior  to  that  of  the  civet. 

The  Paradoxures  are  called  Palm  Civets,  Tree  Cats,  or 
Toddy  Cats.  The  generic  name  means '  queer- tailed/  because 
some  of  the  animals  twist  their  tails  screw  fashion,  bringing 
the  underside  uppermost.  The  common  Paradoxure  (Para- 
doxurus  musanga),  the  Palm  Civet  of  India  and  Ceylon, 
has  a  body  quite  twenty  inches  in  length,  with  a  tail 
only  an  inch  or  two  less.  The  Binturong  (Arctictis  bin- 
turong)  of  Burma,  Assam,  and  the  regions  beyond,  is 
nocturnal  and  omnivorous,  with  a  prehensile  tail  to  help  its 
rather  slow  movements.  The  Meerkat  or  Suricate  (Surlcata 


PLATE  X. 


SURICATE.  2.     GEXET.  3.     SERVAL. 

(See  page  130) 


(Photos  W.  S.  Eerridge,  F3.S.) 


PLATE  XI. 


i.     FOX  TERRIERS.  2.     POINTER.  3.     GREYHOUND. 


THE  DOG  FAMILY  145 

tetradactyla),  Plate  X.  Fig.  i,  pops  in  and  out  of  its  holes  in 
the  South  African  veldt  like  magic  ;  while  the  Cynogale 
(Cynogale  bennetti),  an  animal  of  Malaysia,  has  webbed  feet 
and  very  much  the  same  habits  as  the  otter. 


FAMILY   CANID.E   (DOGS). 

Under  the  general  title  of  Dogs  are  included  not  only 
the  Dog  proper,  wild  and  domesticated,  but  also  the  wolf, 
jackal,  and  fox,  each  of  which  constitutes  a  more  or  less 
natural  division  among  the  many  species  that  make  up 
the  family.  The  Dogs  are  more  widely  spread  than  any 
of  the  foregoing  Carnivora,  and  in  those  that  are  to  follow 
they  are  second  in  this  respect  only  to  the  weasels. 

The  Dogs,  with  one  exception,  have  five  toes  on  the  fore 
feet  and  four  on 
the  hind,  to  which 
latter  a  small  rudi- 
mentary claw  is 
sometimes  added. 
The  blunt  claws 
with  which  the  toes 
are  furnished  are 
not  retractile.  In 
gait  they  are  all 
Digitigrades.  The 
paw  of  a  dog  is  not 
the  perfect  weapon 
of  a  cat,  and  hence 
a  dog  always  attacks  at  once  with  its  teeth,  never  begin- 
ning with  a  blow  of  the  paw. 

It  is  easy  to  distinguish  the  Dogs  from  the  cat  tribe 
by  their  elongated  muzzle,  and  with  few  exceptions  their 
larger  number  of  teeth,  viz.,  forty-two  instead  of  thirty, 
the  extra  teeth  consisting  of  six  each  additional  premolars 
and  molars.  Their  strength  of  jaw  is  very  great.  The 
senses  of  smell,  sight,  and  hearing  are  very  acute.  Except 
in  the  fox  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  round  and  not  elongated 
as  in  the  cat.  When  tired  by  exertion  a  Dog  pants  and 
lolls  out  its  tongue,  through  which  organ  it  perspires. 

n 


SKULL  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  DOG. 
(One-fourth  natural  size.) 


146  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

In  addition  to  its  uses  in  chewing  and  swallowing,  the  Dog's 
tongue  acts  as  a  cooler  and  sweater. 

In  marked  difference  to  the  cats,  the  Dogs  are  very 
gregarious,  collecting  in  packs  for  the  joint  hunting  of 
their  prey.  They  are  more  intelligent  than  any  other  of 
the  Carnivora,  and  practically  all  of  them  are  tamable, 
though  in  varying  degrees. 

DOG  (Cam's  familiaris). 
Plates  XI.  and  XII. 

The  Domestic  Dog  has  been  from  time  immemorial  the 
friend  and  companion  of  man  ;  yet  its  original  stock  still 
remains  a  matter  of  considerable  doubt,  since,  excepting 
the  wolf  and  the  jackal,  we  know  of  no  wild  beast  to  which 
we  can  refer  with  anything  like  certainty  as  its  primeval 
ancestor.  Naturalists,  however,  incline  to  the  belief  that 
the  Dog  owes  its  origin  to  the  wolf  or  the  jackal,  or  both 
together. 

The  Dog  is  commonly  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  but 
always  in  terms  of  disparagement  or  contempt.  Dogs  were 
domesticated  and  tolerated  around  houses  only  because 
they  were  considered  useful  as  scavengers.  At  this  day, 
every  town,  from  the  greatest  to  the  least,  in  Palestine 
swarms  with  lazy  filthy  curs  that  impede  pedestrians  in  the 
daytime  and  howl  hideously  throughout  the  night.  Doubt- 
less the  life  which  the  Dog  leads  in  the  East  tends  to  make 
it  mean-spirited  and  greedy,  and  being  a  constant  devourer 
of  offal  renders  it  impossible  as  a  pet. 

Of  the  domestic  Dog  there  are  so  many  varieties,  and 
their  forms  are  so  diverse  in  shape  and  size,  that  if  half  of 
them  were  described  they  would  occupy  the  entire  volume. 
The  outstanding  feature  of  the  Dog  is  the  creature's  affection 
and  intelligence,  and  thousands  of  instances  could  be  given 
where  training,  added  to  natural  instinct  and  reason,  place 
the  ' friend  of  man'  in  the  very  forefront  of  the  brute  creation. 

Of  our  own  Domestic  Dogs  there  is  a  long  series  of 
animals,  ranging  from  the  Mastiff,  attaining  a  height  of  as 
much  as  thirty-three  inches  at  the  shoulder  and  a  weight  of 


THE  DOMESTIC  DOG  147 

one  hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds,  down  to  the  Toy 
Terrier,  only  a  few  inches  in  length.  Many  of  them  are 
too  well  known  to  call  for  individual  description,  even  if 
space  allowed,  and  only  those  possessing  some  notable 
characteristic  will  be  so  much  as  mentioned. 

The  Sheep  Dog,  or  Collie,  as  it  is  often  called,  is  one  of 
the  cleverest  of  the  Dog  tribe.  To  see  it  at  its  best  one 
must  watch  its  operations  amid  the  hills  of  Wales  and 
Scotland,  collecting  and  driving  sheep  to  any  point  that 
its  master  desires.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that,  when 
alarmed,  the  sheep  will  run  to  the  Dog  for  protection. 

The  Newfoundland  Dog  has  its  feet  partially  webbed, 
which  provision  specially  adapts  it  for  swimming.  At  times 
innumerable  it  has  saved  the  lives  of  drowning  persons, 
who  would  have  perished  long  before  human  aid  could 
have  arrived. 

The  St.  Bernard,  one  of  the  noblest  of  the  Dogs,  for  ages 
has  been  trained  by  the  pious  monks  of  the  monastery  of  St. 
Bernard  in  the  Alps  to  rescue  travellers  who  have  lost  their 
way  in  the  snowdrifts  in  the  mountain  passes.  '  Barry,'  one 
famous  animal,  saved  no  less  than  forty  lives,  and  lost  his 
own  life  while  engaged  in  a  further  rescue.  In  our  country 
there  is  no  opportunity  of  utilising  the  St.  Bernard's  services 
in  this  direction  ;  but  the  breed  is  very  popular,  and  as  much 
as  ^1,500  has  been  paid  for  a  prize  animal. 

The  Setter,  Pointer,  and  Retriever  are  particularly  useful 
sporting  Dogs.  Either  of  the  two  former  will  go  running 
ahead,  and  the  moment  a  bird,  rabbit,  or  hare  is  scented  the 
Dog  stands  still,  with  its  limbs  rigid  and  tail  stretched  out 
behind  it.  This  action  is  called  a  l  point,'  and  indicates  to 
the  sportsman  the  presence  of  game.  When  the  game  has 
fallen  to  the  gun,  the  Retriever  will  bring  it  to  the  foot  of  its 
master.  Upon  one  occasion  a  wounded  partridge  escaped 
into  a  ditch,  from  which  a  little  later  the  dog  emerged, 
carrying  a  rusty  old  kettle  by  its  handle,  which  to  the 
amusement  of  the  party  it  added  to  the  heap  of  dead  game. 
Only  then  was  it  discovered  that  the  partridge  had  taken 
refuge  in  the  kettle. 

The  Chow,  something  like  the  Pomeranian  breed  in  shape 
is  a  popular  pet  Dog  in  England.  It  is  often  a  shade  of  red 


i48  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

or  black,  and  its  tongue  is  blue-black  in  colour.  The  Dog 
is  better  off  in  England  than  in  its  native  home,  for  John 
Chinaman  views  it  as  a  special  delicacy,  and  fattens  it  up  for 
the  table. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  all  the  different  '  breeds '  are 
purely  artificial,  and  if  a  number  of  mastiffs,  greyhounds, 
bulldogs,  poodles,  terriers,  &c.,  were  landed  upon  an 
island  where  they  could  obtain  food,  but  would  not  see  a 
human  being,  in  a  few  years  all  the  '  breeds '  would  vanish, 
and  in  a  few  more  their  descendants  would  revert  to  the  wolf- 
like  semi-wild  Dog,  which  still  infests  the  cities  of  the  East. 

To  return,  however,  to  the  original  stock  of  this  useful 
animal.  There  are  evidences  that  the  Domestic  Dog  existed 
among  the  prehistoric  savages  of  Europe,  and  in  some  of 
the  ancient  nations  was  worshipped  as  a  god.  May  we  not 
believe  that  when  man  'went  out  to  till  the  ground  from 
which  he  was  taken  '  the  Dog  was  expressly  given  to  him  as 
his  assistant  and  ally?  Of  all  animals  the  Dog  alone  is 
identified  with  its  master's  interests  and  pursuits  ;  other 
animals  may  be  said  to  endure  his  dominion,  but  the  Dog 
is  one  of  the  family,  knows  his  looks,  his  voice,  his  walk, 
rejoices  at  his  approach,  solicits  his  notice,  and  defends  his 
person. 

ESKIMO  DOG  (Cam's  familiaris  var.). 
Plate  XII.  Fig.  i. 

This  variety  of  Dog  deserves  extended  notice  if  only 
because  it  is  a  necessity  of  life  in  the  northern  regions.  Its 
size  is  about  that  of  a  mastiff,  and  it  has  a  firm,  muscular 
figure,  thick  furry  hair,  and  bushy  tail  curled  over  its  back. 
When  it  sleeps,  it  can  curl  its  tail  over  its  nose,  tuck  its  feet 
under  its  body,  and  be  warm  during  its  repose  amid  an 
intenseness  of  cold  that  words  can  scarcely  convey.  Besides 
possessing  this  thick  coat,  the  Eskimo  Dog  is  an  astonish- 
ingly hardy  animal,  capable  of  sustaining  life  under  condi- 
tions that  any  other  breed  would  find  intolerable. 

Inhabiting  the  arctic  regions  of  the  American  continent 
and  the  adjacent  islands,  the  Eskimo  look  to  their  Dogs  for 
assistance  in  the  pursuit  of  the  seal,  the  bear,  or  the  rein- 


PLATE  XII. 


I.    ESKIMO    DOG.  2.     POODLE.  3.     NEWFOUNDLAND    DOG. 


PLATE  XIII. 


i.  CAPE    HUNTING   DOG.  2.     DINGO. 

(See  page  151) 


(Photos  W.  S.  Ben-idge,  F.Z.S.) 


THE  ESKIMO  DOG  149 

deer  ;  nor  is  this  all :  they  yoke  them  to  heavily-laden 
sledges,  which  with  untiring  patience  these  animals  will 
drag  from  one  hunting  ground  to  another.  The  following 
extract  is  from  Captain  Parry's  Journal  of  a  Second  Voyage 
for  the  Discovery  of  a  North-west  Passage  : — 

'  When  drawing  a  sledge,  the  Dogs  have  a  simple  harness 
of  deer  or  seal  skin  going  round  the  neck  by  one  bight  and 
another  for  each  of  the  forelegs,  with  a  single  thong  leading 
over  the  back,  and  attached  to  the  sledge  as  a  trace. 
Though  they  appear  at  first  sight  to  be  huddled  together 
without  regard  to  regularity,  there  is,  in  fact,  considerable 
attention  paid  to  their  arrangement,  particularly  in  the 
selection  of  a  dog  of  peculiar  spirit  and  sagacity,  who  is 
allowed  by  a  longer  trace  to  precede  the  rest  as  a  leader. 

'  The  leader  is  usually  from  eighteen  to  twenty  feet  from 
the  fore  part  of  the  sledge,  and  the  hindmost  dog  about  half 
that  distance,  so  that  when  ten  or  twelve  are  running 
together,  several  are  nearly  abreast  of  each  other.  The 
driver  sits  quite  low,  on  the  fore  part  of  the  sledge,  with  his 
feet  overhanging  the  snow  on  one  side,  and  having  in  his 
hand  a  whip,  of  which  the  handle  is  eighteen  inches,  and 
the  lash  more  than  as  many  feet. 

'Though  the  Dogs  are  kept  in  training  entirely  by  the 
fear  of  the  whip,  and,  indeed,  without  it  would  soon  have 
their  own  way,  its  immediate  effect  is  always  detrimental  to 
the  draught  of  the  sledge,  for  not  only  does  the  individual 
that  is  struck  draw  back  and  slacken  his  trace,  but  generally 
turns  upon  his  next  neighbour  ;  and  this  passing  on  to  the 
next,  occasions  a  general  commotion,  accompanied  by  the 
usual  yelping  and  showing  of  the  teeth. 

'  The  Dogs  then  come  together  again  by  degrees,  and  the 
draught  of  the  sledge  is  accelerated  ;  but  even  at  the  best  of 
times  there  is  the  constant  entanglement  of  the  traces,  by 
the  dogs  repeatedly  doubling  under  from  side  to  side  to 
avoid  the  whip,  so  that  after  running  a  few  miles  the  traces 
always  require  to  be  taken  off  and  cleaned.' 

With  '  good  sleighing ' — that  is,  on  good  roads — '  six  or 
seven  dogs  will  draw  from  eight  to  ten  hundredweight,  at 
the  rate  of  seven  or  eight  miles  an  hour,  for  several  hours 
together.'  With  a  smaller  load  they  will  run  ten  miles  an 


i5o  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

hour,  and  are,  in  fact,  almost  unmanageable.  To  the 
women,  who  nurse  them  when  they  are  ill  and  treat  them 
with  greater  kindness  than  the  men,  the  Dogs  are  affec- 
tionate in  the  highest  degree.  From  the  men  they  receive 
little  except  blows  and  rough  treatment ;  still  they  are  faith- 
ful and  enduring. 

WILD  DOG. 

In  various  parts  of  the  world  there  are  Wild  Dogs,  of 
which  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  they  are  of  the 
original  stock,  or  whether  they  are  the  descendants  of  once 
domesticated  animals,  which  at  some  time  deserted  into 
the  woods,  in  a  country  where  game  abounds,  there  shifting 
for  themselves  and  becoming  the  ancestors  of  a  numerous 
race. 

The  Pariah  Dogs  of  India  are  a  sort  of  half-domesticated 
breed,  which  roam  about  the  towns  and  villages,  where 
they  fulfil  the  office  of  scavengers,  devouring  the  offal  of 
the  markets  and  clearing  the  streets  of  refuse.  They  are 
generally  ugly  brutes,  coarse-skinned,  blear-eyed,  and 
scrubby-tailed.  Though  treated  kindly  by  the  public,  they 
are  absolutely  ownerless,  and  have  no  idea  of  human  com- 
panionship. In  the  large  cities  the  Dogs  divide  themselves 
into  communities,  each  of  which  is  restricted  to  a  certain 
area,  and  if  an  animal  strays  from  its  own  quarter  of  the 
town  it  is  immediately  driven  back  by  the  pack  into  whose 
domain  it  has  intruded. 

These  remarks  apply  not  only  to  the  Dogs  of  India,  but 
of  other  Eastern  countries  also.  It  is  the  same  dog  that  is 
so  often  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  as  a  ravening  beast ; 
which  licked  up  the  blood  of  Ahab ;  and  which  so  terribly 
fulfilled  the  prophecy  that  '  the  dogs  shall  eat  Jezebel  in  the 
portion  of  Jezreel,  and  there  shall  be  none  to  bury  her/ 

Quite  different  is  the  Red  Dog  of  the  Deccan.  It  is  not  a 
city  dweller,  but  roams  in  troops  through  the  jungles.  It 
is  individually  a  match  for  any  of  the  smaller  mammals,  for 
it  is  ferocious  and  wonderfully  bold  ;  but  in  the  pack  it  will 
cause  even  the  tiger  hastily  to  desert  its  freshly  caught  prey 
and  take  refuge  in  the  low  fork  of  a  tree,  there  in  impotent 
wrath  to  watch  the  disappearance  of  its  meal. 


THE  WOLF  151 

The  Cape  Hunting  Dog,  or  Wild  Dog  of  Africa 
(Plate  XIII.  Fig.  i),  represents  a  distinct  genus,  for  it 
has  only  four  toes  on  each  of  its  feet,  and  is  spotted 
something  like  the  hyaena.  Hunting  in  packs,  it  is  the 
scourge  of  the  continent,  and  in  particular  it  lays  a  heavy 
toll  upon  the  antelope  family.  In  the  neighbourhood  of 
settlements  these  organised  marauders  will  kill  cattle  and 
sheep.  Dashing  into  a  herd  near  a  house,  the  Dogs  will 
select  an  animal  and  drive  it  away  over  the  nearest  rising 
ground.  Once  over  the  ridge,  they  kill  it  and  pick  its  bones 
before  a  horse  can  be  saddled  and  some  one  come  to  the 
rescue. 

The  Dingo  (Plate  XIII.  Fig.  2)  was  at  one  time 
extremely  numerous  throughout  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land ;  in  the  former  it  is  getting  rare,  and  in  the  latter 
it  has  been  exterminated.  The  early  colonists  suffered 
immense  loss  from  the  raids  of  the  Dingo,  which,  some- 
thing like  the  fox  in  its  life  and  habits,  would  play  havoc 
with  the  sheep  and  poultry.  The  animal  is  interesting  as 
being  one  of  the  few  Australian  mammals  outside  the 
Marsupial  group  ;  and  no  end  of  discussion  has  waged 
around  the  question  whether  it  is  really  an  indigenous 
animal  or  a  descendant  of  some  of  the  Dogs  of  Asia,  intro- 
duced into  the  island  long  ages  ago. 

It  is  a  point  worth  noting,  as  bearing  upon  the  probable 
origin  of  the  domesticated  Dog,  that  the  various  wild 
species  are  easily  tamed  when  caught  young,  and  that  the 
domesticated  and  the  wild  animals  often  breed  with  each 
other.  A  wolf  and  a  dog  or  a  jackal  and  a  dog  will  mate 
together,  but  a  fox  and  a  dog  never. 


WOLF  (Cants  lupus}. 
Coloured  Plate  VII.  Fig.  3. 

Different  species  of  Wolves  rank  next  to  the  bears  as 
formidable  beasts  of  prey  in  the  northern  parts  of  both 
the  Old  and  the  New  World.  The  European  Wolf  is 
coated  with  thick,  coarse,  yellowish-grey  hair.  Standing 
about  two  feet  high,  it  measures  over  four  feet  from  the 


152  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

end  of  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  though  in  exceptional 
cases  it  is  nearer  six  feet.  In  character  it  is  skulking, 
cowardly,  savage  and  voracious. 

The  Wolf  is  noticed  in  several  passages  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  and  always  with  an  allusion  to  its  cruel  and 
savage  disposition.  The  animal  still  abounds  in  the  colder 
and  more  mountainous  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  winter  the 
depredations  of  the  packs  are  a  serious  matter.  During 
severe  weather  Wolves  from  the  Carpathian  Mountains  and 
from  Russia  cross  the  frozen  rivers  as  far  as  to  the  Ardennes 
Forest  in  the  south-east  of  Belgium.  In  the  early  part  of 
last  century,  in  Livonia,  a  province  of  Russia,  only  six  times 
the  area  of  Yorkshire,  in  one  year  Wolves  destroyed  nearly 
two  thousand  each  of  horses  and  cattle,  fifteen  thousand 

sheep,  over  two  thou- 
sand goats,  and  four 
thousand  swine, 
together  with  calves, 
lambs,  kids,  dogs,  geese, 
and  fowl  in  smaller 
numbers. 

We   can   readily  be- 
lieve that  the  Wolf  was 
SKULL  OF  THE  WOLF.  at  one  time  a  terror  in 

(Nearly  one-fourth  natural  size.)  England.        The    month 

of  January  was   called 

'  Wolf-monat '  by  our  Anglo-Saxon  forefathers,  '  because 
people  are  wont  in  that  moneth  to  be  more  in  danger  to  be 
devoured  of  Wolves  than  in  any  season  of  the  yeare.'  King 
Edgar  forced  the  Welsh  to  pay  him  annually  a  tribute  of 
Wolves'  heads,  but  the  animal  was  common  in  English 
forests  for  many  centuries  after  Edgar's  reign.  Like  the 
eagle,  the  beast  lingered  in  Scotland  long  after  it  was 
extirpated  from  England,  the  last  specimen  being  killed  in 
1680  ;  and  in  Ireland  it  survived  still  longer,  for  in  the 
eighteenth  century  a  reward  was  claimed  for  Wolf-killing. 
The  history  of  the  Wolf  in  Europe  is  a  tragical  record. 
It  rarely  attacks  man  except  under  stress  of  extreme  hunger ; 
but  there  are  many  stories  told  of  packs  of  Wolves  chasing 
sledges  in  winter.  By  taking  advantage  of  a  characteristic 


THE  WOLF  153 

of  the  Wolf,  a  well  armed  traveller  has  often  reached  a  place 
of  safety.  When  the  pack  is  in  full  cry  and  the  occupant  of 
the  sledge  fires  into  them,  the  wounded  animal  is  at  once 
fallen  upon  by  its  companions  and  devoured.  During  this 
respite  the  sledge  has  made  good  progress,  only  to  be  over- 
hauled again  by  the  hungry  beasts,  when  the  driver  repeats 
his  manoeuvre.  Sometimes  the  ammunition  has  failed  and 
horses  and  travellers  have  been  devoured. 

Almost  incredible  are  the  tales  which  are  told  of  the 
ferocious  obstinacy  of  the  Wolf  when  it  casts  aside  its 
natural  fear  and  dread  of  man.  A  man-eating  Wolf  is  more 
to  be  feared  than  lion,  tiger,  or  leopard.  It  is  a  dog,  and 
has  far  more  intellect  than  any  of  the  cats.  It  has  a  way  of 
working  in  concert  with  other  Wolves,  one  diverting  atten- 
tion while  the  other  makes  off  with  the  prey.  No  one  ever 
heard  of  a  troop  of  lions,  tigers,  or  leopards  chasing  prey  in 
concert.  A  lion  and  his  mate  will  sometimes  work  together, 
but  the  capacity  for  chasing  prey  in  packs  belongs  to  the 
dogs  and  not  to  the  cats. 

'  In  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  in  the 
depth  of  winter  and  of  the  snows,  a  large  party  of  dragoons 
was  attacked  near  Pontarlier,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains 
of  Jura,  by  a  multitude  of  Wolves.  The  dragoons  fought 
bravely  and  killed  many  hundreds  of  them  ;  but  at  last, 
overpowered  by  numbers,  they  and  their  horses  were  all 
devoured.  A  cross  is  erected  on  the  place  of  combat,  with 
an  inscription  in  commemoration  of  it,  which  is  to  be  seen 
at  this  day.' 

By  taking  joint  action  the  Wolf  is  enabled  to  overcome 
other  animals  that  would  outrun  or  overpower  it  singly. 
Half-a-dozen  Wolves  will  stalk  an  antelope  and  stealthily 
form  a  cordon  round  it,  or  drive  it  to  a  point  where  one 
of  their  number  is  lying  in  ambush.  Buffaloes,  too,  are 
killed  by  the  brutes  in  an  ingenious  manner.  In  an  ordinary 
way  and  with  ordinary  animals  a  buffalo  is  a  tough  cus- 
tomer, but  the  Wolves  contrive  their  business  very  effectively. 
They  drive  the  doomed  animal  to  the  edge  of  a  cliff,  over 
which  they  force  it  by  flying  at  its  nose.  Their  purpose 
accomplished,  the  Wolves  jog  quietly  down  and  pick  its 
bones. 


154  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

The  cunning  of  the  Wolf  sometimes  degenerates  into 
cowardice.  It  is  afraid  of  anything  that  looks  like  a  trap, 
and  will  never  venture  into  a  space  which  has  been  en- 
closed by  poles  connected  by  a  rope.  In  Norway  the 
electric  telegraph  proved  quite  an  unexpected  blessing. 
The  wolves  mistook  the  wires  for  a  new  kind  of  trap  and 
never  dared  to  pass  beneath  them. 

Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  said  of  the  naturally 
savage  disposition  of  the  Wolf,  it  has  sometimes  become 
domesticated  ;  but,  as  in  the  cases  of  tame  lions  and  tigers, 
the  result  is  more  a  proof  of  the  triumph  of  the  dominating 
art  of  man,  than  evidence  of  a  relenting  nature  in  the 
animal.  In  Munich  was  once  to  be  seen  a  vehicle  drawn 
by  two  enormous  Wolves,  which  a  Russian  merchant  had 
captured  when  very  young  and  tamed  to  his  service. 

The  true  Wolf,  restricted  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  is 
found  all  over  Europe,  Northern,  Central,  and  Western 
Asia,  Northern  America  and  the  North  of  Africa.  Except 
in  a  few  regions  the  animal  is  the  common  species,  whose 
habits  are  more  or  less  similar  all  the  world  over.  In  the 
more  northern  regions  of  America  and  Asia,  in  winter  it 
may  have  a  lighter  coat ;  but  an  albino  Wolf  is  little  more 
than  a  freak  (Plate  XV.  Fig.  2).  The  Indian  Wolf 
(Canis  pallipes)  is  less  gregarious  than  the  common  species, 
and  in  some  districts  makes  a  speciality  of  preying  upon 
children.  The  superstitious  natives  believe  that  the  little 
victims  are  sometimes  suckled  by  the  she- Wolf,  who  thus 
completely  changes  their  nature.  In  early  times  European 
nations  held  somewhat  similar  beliefs,  e.g.,  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Were-Wolf  was  a  mythical  being,  who  could  assume  the 
form  and  nature  of  a  Wolf  at  pleasure,  delighting  in  human 
flesh  and  deeds  of  horrid  cruelty. 

The  Coyote,  or  Prairie  Wolf  (Canis  latrans),  Plate  XIV. 
Fig.  i,  of  the  United  States  and  Southern  Canada  is  smaller 
and  not  nearly  so  ferocious  as  the  common  Wolf,  although 
it  is  the  unrelenting  foe  of  all  young  creatures.  When 
animal  food  fails,  however,  the  Coyote  readily  makes  up 
for  the  deficiency  with  leaves  and  berries.  Just  as  in  the 
old  days  packs  of  Coyotes  followed  the  prairie  caravans,  so 
now  do  the  animals  station  themselves  along  the  trans- 


THE  JACKAL  155 

continental   railway  lines  in    the  hope  of   picking   up  the 
waste  scraps  thrown  from  the  dining  cars. 


JACKAL  (Canis  aureus). 
Coloured  Plate  VII.  Fig.  4. 

The  Jackal  rather  exceeds  a  large  fox  in  size,  though  its 
tail  is  not  so  long  proportionately,  nor  so  bushy  as  in  the 
latter  animal.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Old  World,  the 
common  species  being  found  in  the  South-east  of  Asia  and 
onwards  to  India  and  Ceylon,  and  practically  the  same 
animal  ranges  through  Egypt  and  Abyssinia.  Several  other 
species  extend  throughout  Central  and  South  Africa  from 
Nubia  to  the  Cape. 

The  common  Jackal  of  India  shows  considerable  variation 
in  colour,  but  as  often  as  not  it  is  mottled  black,  grey,  and 
brown  on  the  back,  with  the  under  fur  brownish  yellow ; 
the  limbs  are  more  or  less  foxy  red,  with  the  tail  a  darker 
shade.  The  name  aureus  is  derived  from  the  yellowish 
tinge  of  the  fur. 

The  Jackal  only  measures  from  two  to  two  and  a  half 
feet  without  the  tail ;  the  ears  are  pointed  ;  the  pupils  of 
the  eyes  are  round,  and  the  skin  exhales  a  strong  and 
offensive  odour.  It  hunts  in  troops  or  packs,  pursuing  the 
antelope  and  other  animals  for  its  prey,  as  well  as  rendering 
useful  service  in  clearing  the  country  and  suburbs  of  towns 
and  villages  of  carrion  in  every  stage  of  putrefaction.  The 
animal  has  been  called  the  '  lion's  provider/  and  is  popularly 
supposed  to  hunt  down  the  quarry  for  the  royal  beast.  It 
is  far  more  likely  that  when  the  cry  of  the  Jackal  is  heard 
the  lion  makes  its  appearance,  and  seizes  without  any 
ceremony  upon  the  booty,  leaving  the  Jackals  to  clear  up 
the  remains  of  the  repast. 

Most  travellers  agree  in  the  terrific  effect  which  the  cry, 
or  rather  shriek,  of  the  animal  produces,  resounding  during 
the  stilly  darkness  of  the  night  from  a  hundred  throats. 

In  many  cases  the  fox  of  the  sacred  writers  more  properly 
refers  to  the  Jackal,  especially  where  mention  is  made  of 
feeding  upon  carrion.  The  fox  is  not  a  carrion-eater  by 


156  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

choice,  whereas  the  Jackal  prefers  it,  and  resorts  even  to 
graves  and  cemeteries  to  satisfy  its  ghoulish  taste.  We  read 
that  Samson  '  went  and  caught  three  hundred  foxes  and 
took  firebrands/  which  he  tied  to  the  animals  for  the  pur- 
pose of  burning  the  cornfields  of  the  Philistines.  The 
difficulty  of  procuring  three  hundred  foxes  would  be  very 
great,  since  the  animal  is  not  gregarious  and  would  require 
to  be  captured  singly,  whereas  Jackals  might  be  captured  in 
a  drove. 

The  Black-backed  Jackal  (Canis  mesomelas)  of  South 
Africa  is  the  handsomest  of  its  race,  having  its  back  adorned 
with  black,  broken  with  silvery  hairs  and  tufts.  During  the 
South  African  War  the  Jackals,  like  the  leopards,  very 
greatly  increased,  owing  to  there  being  no  men  on  the  farms 
to  keep  down  their  numbers.  This  animal  is  particularly 
destructive  to  sheep  and  lambs,  leading  to  Government 
rewards  for  its  capture,  viz.,  seven  shillings  and  sixpence 
per  head. 

In  India  and  South  Africa  sportsmen  often  regularly  hunt 
the  Jackal  in  the  same  manner  as  the  fox  is  chased  in 
England.  The  animal  can  be  tamed  with  ease,  and  exhibits 
most  of  the  manners  of  the  dog,  even  to  the  wagging  of  the 
tail  when  pleased.  In  a  few  generations  it  could  be  com- 
pletely domesticated  and  rendered  capable  of  useful  service 
to  man. 

FOX  (Cam's  vulpes). 
Coloured  Plate  VIII.  Fig.  4. 

Of  the  common  Fox,  our  own  British  animal,  the  terror 
of  the  farmyard  from  its  voracity  and  the  favourite  object 
of  the  chase  in  England,  almost  endless  interesting  informa- 
tion might  be  afforded.  If  the  animal  had  not  been  pre- 
served for  purposes  of  sport,  in  the  British  Isles  it  would 
long  ago  have  been  as  extinct  as  the  wolf.  With  slight 
variations  in  size  and  strength  and  colour,  the  common  Fox 
is  found  throughout  Europe,  Northern  and  Western  Asia, 
and  Northern  Africa ;  in  India  and  North  America  are 
various  allied  species. 

The  British  Fox,  as  represented  in  the  coloured  plate,  is 


PLATE  XIV. 


I 


i.     PRAIRIE    WOLF. 

(See  page  154) 


2.     AARD    WOLF. 

(See  page  140) 


(Photos  If.  S.  Bet-ridge,  F.Z.S.) 


PLATE  XV. 


i.     FENNEC. 

(See  page  159) 


2.     ALBINO    WOLF. 
(See  page  154) 


(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


THE  FOX  157 

mainly  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  with  the  under  parts  and 
the  tip  of  the  tail  white  ;  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  ears  and 
some  portions  of  the  limbs  are  often  quite  black.  It  is 
about  two  feet  in  length,  with  a  bushy  tail  a  foot  or  more 
long,  which  chiefly  distinguishes  the  animal  from  the  dog. 
Another  point  of  difference  is  that  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is 
less  round  and  contracts  into  a  mere  slit,  for  which  reason 
chiefly  the  Fox  is  sometimes  classed  in  a  genus  separate 
from  the  dogs. 

The  Fox  is  generally  a  solitary  animal,  living  in  an  '  earth  ' 
of  its  own  excavation,  although  it  sometimes  appropriates 
the  burrow  of  the  badger.  It  is  practically  omnivorous  in 
diet ;  its  general  prey  consists  of  hares,  rabbits,  and  ground 
birds,  rats,  mice,  and  even  frogs,  beetles,  and  worms.  It 
has  a  mania  for  poultry,  as  the  British  farmer  often  learns 
to  his  cost. 

The  cunning  of  the  Fox  is  proverbial,  and  space  alone 
prevents  a  description  of  some  of  the  artifices  to  which  it 
will  resort  to  outwit  the  hounds.  After  a  chase  of  no  less 
than  twenty-seven  miles  a  hunted  animal  has  finally  escaped 
from  its  foes;  and  although  not  supposed  to  be  a  tree- 
climber,  in  the  forest  of  Savernake  a  Fox  was  found  hiding 
in  the  foliage  at  a  height  of  thirty-seven  feet  above  the 
ground.  One  more  instance  of  the  creature's  cunning 
and  courage  must  suffice. 

A  well-known  taxidermist  had  the  body  of  a  Fox  sent  to 
him  to  be  stuffed.  The  animal  had  only  three  feet,  but  on 
opening  it  the  missing  foot  was  found  in  its  stomach.  There 
could  be  no  doubt  that  the  Fox  had  been  caught  by  the 
foot  in  a  trap,  and,  in  order  to  escape,  had  bitten  off  and 
swallowed  the  imprisoned  limb.  Rabbits,  when  similarly 
caught,  tear  themselves  away,  leaving  their  feet  in  the  trap, 
together  with  the  sinews ;  while  the  cat,  when  taken  in  a 
snare,  seldom  has  the  courage  to  tear  itself  away,  and  never 
would  dream  of  biting  off  the  limb. 

In  affection  for  its  offspring  the  Fox  is  scarcely  surpassed 
by  any  other  animal.  The  vixen  seldom  has  more  than 
five  cubs,  and  she  will  defend  them  with  great  courage. 
More  often,  however,  she  exercises  her  wits  to  protect  her 
progeny.  When  she  has  suspected  that  her  den  has  been 


158  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

discovered,  she  has  been  known  to  remove  the  litter  a 
distance  of  three  miles  in  a  night.  She  could  only  carry 
one  of  her  young  at  a  time,  and  if  the  cubs  numbered  four, 
their  removal  entailed  journeys  that  totalled  up  to  twenty- 
one  miles. 

All  Fox  skins  are  of  value,  and  where  the  animal  exists 
in  great  numbers  they  become  an  important  article  of 
export.  In  South  America  is  found  the  Cross  Fox  (Canis 
decussatus),  a  red  Fox  with  a  black  cross  on  its  neck  and 
shoulders.  A  skin  of  this  animal  is  worth  several  pounds. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  price  of  furs  varies  constantly 
according  to  the  supply,  and  not  a  little  on  account  of 
changing  fashions. 

ARCTIC   FOX    (Canis   lagopus). 
Coloured  Plate  VIII.  Fig.  5. 

The  Arctic  Fox  is  common  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  It 
is  smaller  than  the  red  Fox,  and  is  coated  with  thick, 
long  hair  quite  to  the  soles  of  its  feet.  In  summer  it  is  a 
grey  or  even  a  bluish  shade  ;  but,  in  common  with  other 
polar  animals,  the  fur  lightens  in  winter  to  a  pure  white. 
Late  in  autumn  this  species  collects  in  multitudes  in  such 
regions  as  Hudson  Bay,  migrating  southwards,  where  they 
remain  until  the  following  spring.  Trappers  capture  the 
animal  in  vast  numbers  ;  the  skins  are  useful,  but  less  in 
value  than  those  of  the  red  Fox. 

In  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Bering  Sea  the  Blue  Fox  is 
reared  for  the  sake  of  its  valuable  fur.  This  species  retains 
its  colour  all  the  year  round.  The  animals  feed  chiefly  on 
seal  flesh,  of  which,  in  the  sealing  season  in  particular, 
there  is  plenty  and  to  spare. 

Another  native  of  Northern  America  is  the  Black  or 
Silver  Fox  (Vulpes  argentatis).  The  animal  is  exceedingly 
rare  ;  its  fur  is  among  the  most  valuable  in  the  world.  Its 
colour  is  a  deep  black,  the  long  hairs  all  terminating  in 
white,  which  produces  a  singularly  beautiful  effect,  whence 
the  title  '  silvery.'  The  imperial  pelisse  of  the  Czar  of 
Russia,  made  of  the  black  necks  of  the  Silver  Fox,  was 
exhibited  at  Hyde  Park  in  1851.  It  was  valued  at  £3,500. 


THE  WEASEL  TRIBE  159 

FENNEC   (Cants  zerda). 
Plate  XV.  Fig.  i. 

There  are  many  species  of  Fox,  but  none  so  quaintly 
pretty  as  the  Fennec  of  Northern  Africa.  It  appears  to 
have  been  first  noticed  by  the  celebrated  traveller  Bruce, 
who  discovered  it  during  his  endeavours  to  reach  the  source 
of  the  Nile.  Its  ears  and  tail  are  so  large  and  its  body  is  so 
small  that  it  looks  as  if  it  were  made  of  a  pair  of  ears  and  a 
tail,  to  which  a  body  had  been  attached  as  an  afterthought. 
From  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail  the  Fennec  measures 
barely  a  foot,  the  bushy  appendage  being  eight  inches  in 
length.  Its  colour  is  pale  fawn  and  its  eyes  are  blue. 
Like  the  rest  of  the  foxes,  it  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and 
remains  during  the  day  in  holes  and  burrows  which  it  digs 
in  the  sandy  soil. 

FAMILY    MUSTELID^:. 

This  family  forms  a  most  heterogeneous  collection  of 
carnivorous  animals,  which  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  with  the  exception  of  the  West  Indies  and  Australasia. 
Differing  much  among  themselves  in  size,  and  including 
burrowers,  tree-climbers,  and  animals  distinctly  aquatic,  it 
would  be  almost  useless  to  attempt  to  describe  characters 
common  to  all,  except  certain  physiological  similarities,  as, 
for  example,  the  organs  of  digestion. 

Many  of  these  animals  are  classed  as  '  vermin/  but  that 
derogatory  term  does  not  depreciate  the  value  of  the 
magnificent  furs  with  which  many  members  of  the  family 
are  coated.  Numerous  as  the  animals  are,  they  conveniently 
divide  into  three  sections,  or  sub-families  :— 

1.  Musteline?,   or    true    Weasels,    e.g.,    Weasel,    Marten, 
Polecat,  Stoat,  Glutton,  &c. 

2.  Melince,  e.g.,  Badger,  Skunk,  &c. 

3.  Lutrince,  or  Otters. 

Sub-Family  Mustelinse. 

The  majority  of  these  animals  are  small,  the  Wolverene 
being  quite  a  giant  among  them  ;  but  even  the  smallest 


160  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

of  them  possess  strength  out  of  all  proportion  to  their 
size.  The  muzzle  of  the  small  head  is  pointed;  the  teeth 
are  sharp  and  thoroughly  carnivorous  in  character.  Their 
relish  for  blood  is  strong,  and  only  their  inferiority  of 
size  prevents  their  being  among  the  most  formidable  of 
animals.  Their  bite  is  keen  and  deep,  and  they  generally  fix 
upon  a  vital  part  where  some  large  vein  invites  them,  and 
there  hang  until  their  victim  expires.  From  their  slender, 
elongated  figure  they  are  termed  vermiform  (or  worm-like) 
mammals.  They  worm  their  way  in  and  out  of  the  smallest 
crevices  where  it  could  hardly  be  supposed  possible  for 
them  to  enter ;  and  they  climb  with  remarkable  adroitness, 
thanks  to  their  short,  strong  limbs  and  sharp  claws.  More 
or  less  nocturnal  in  habit,  the  Weasel  tribe  carry  death  to 
every  creature  smaller  than  themselves  and  to  not  a  few  that 
are  much  larger.  Most  of  the  Weasels  give  off  a  disagree- 
able odour  from  glands  which  are  placed  beneath  the  root 
of  the  tail. 

WEASEL  (Putorius  vulgaris). 
Coloured  Plate   IX.  Fig.  6. 

The  whole  of  the  true  Weasels  are  terribly  bloodthirsty, 
and  the  common  Weasel,  the  smallest  and  commonest  of 
its  race,  is  second  to  none  in  its  determination  and  fierce- 
ness. The  animal  is  found  in  most  countries  of  Europe 
and  is  still  more  abundant  in  North  America.  The  generic 
name  (putorius)  means  bad  smelling. 

The  Weasel  is  but  seven  or  eight  inches  in  length  with- 
out the  tail,  which  is  another  two  and  a  half  inches.  The 
body  is  remarkably  attenuated  and  cylindrical,  the  flattened 
head,  with  its  pitiless  eyes,  merging  almost  imperceptibly 
into  the  neck  and  the  neck  into  the  body,  this  worm-like 
formation  enabling  the  creature  to  thread  even  the  under- 
ground galleries  of  the  field  mice. 

Being  an  expert  climber,  the  Weasel  preys  upon  birds, 
their  eggs  and  young.  It  can  run  along  the  top  of  a  hedge 
with  almost  the  facility  of  a  bird  hopping  from  twig  to  twig. 
Rats  and  mice  are  its  commonest  prey :  one  bite  on  the 
back  of  the  head  pierces  the  brain,  which  the  fierce  little 


Plate    IX. 


7.  Ferret 


8.  Mink 


THE   WEASEL  161 

animal  at  once  devours  as  a  special  delicacy.  Birds  are 
generally  first  bitten  under  the  wing,  where  the  great  blood- 
vessels lie.  By  destroying  rodents,  especially  when  it  takes 
up  its  quarters  near  hay  and  corn  ricks,  the  Weasel  renders 
good  service  to  the  farmer ;  and  in  1892,  when  the 
Lowlands  of  Scotland  suffered  from  a  plague  of  voles, 
the  Weasels  increased  in  numbers  enormously. 

As  the  Weasel  breeds  at  least  twice  a  year  and  preys  upon 
game  birds  as  big  as  the  pheasant  and  grouse,  the  game- 
keeper makes  relentless  war  upon  the  miniature  tiger,  which 
not  infrequently  hunts  in  parties  of  as  many  as  eight  or 
nine.  Small  as  it  is,  the  Weasel,  when  incensed,  will  attack 
any  being  which  it  considers  to  be  an  enemy.  It  has  been 
seen  to  fly  at  a  cow  and  hang  on  her  dew-lap  because 


SKELETON  OF  THE  WEASEL. 
(One-fourth  natural  size.) 

she  took  the  liberty  of  feeding  on  some  grass  which  grew 
on  the  stone-heap  in  which  the  Weasel  had  made  its  home. 
A  kite  has  been  known  to  swoop  down  upon  a  foraging 
Weasel,  only  to  find,  when  up  in  the  air,  that  the  prospective 
prey  turns  to  a  bloodthirsty  aggressor.  With  the  blood- 
vessels under  its  wing  completely  lacerated,  the  bird 
gradually  sinks  back  to  earth  again,  while  the  Weasel 
remains  unhurt  to  make  a  meal  of  the  fierce  bird  of  prey. 
Many  instances  are  recorded  where  Weasels  have  even 
attacked  human  beings,  swarming  out  of  their  holes  and 
making  a  combined  assault  upon  the  enemy.  In  such  cases 
they  are  most  dangerous  foes,  for  they  always  make  for  the 
face  and  neck,  screaming  with  rage,  and  biting  cruelly  with 
their  needle-like  teeth.  Upon  one  occasion  a  farm  labourer 
was  beset  by  half  a  dozen  Weasels,  and  although  armed 
with  a  large  cart-whip,  the  man  was  unable  to  keep  the 

12 


162  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

fierce  little  creatures  off  his  body.  Not  until  he  secured  a 
stout  stake,  with  which  he  killed  three  of  his  assailants,  did 
the  remainder  seek  safety  in  the  crevices  of  a  neighbouring 
rock. 

The  Weasel  is  capable  of  being  tamed,  and  is  said  to  be 
one  of  the  most  delightful  of  pets,  cleanly  in  the  extreme, 
and  as  playful  and  inquisitive  as  any  kitten.  Most  persons, 
however,  would  prefer  to  accept  the  statement  without 
actually  putting  it  to  the  test,  for  the  average  Weasel  is  in 
reality  as  little  likely  to  modify  its  nature  as  is  a  leopard 
to  change  its  spots. 

STOAT  OR  ERMINE  (Putorius  erminea). 
Coloured  Plate  IX.  Fig.  3. 

The  Stoat  differs  from  the  Weasel  only  in  its  greater  size 
and  certain  distinctive  features  in  the  colouring  of  its  coat. 
It  is  found  throughout  Europe  and  Asia  as  far  south  as  the 
Alps  and  the  Himalaya  respectively,  and  also  in  many 
parts  of  North  America.  It  averages  about  ten  and  a  half 
inches  in  length,  with  a  tail  of  six  inches,  including  the  long 
fur  at  the  tip. 

In  England  the  Stoat  has  a  beautiful  coat,  reddish-brown 
above  and  yellowish-white  below,  while  in  winter  it  becomes 
more  or  less  yellowish-white  all  over.  In  very  cold  regions 
the  fur  changes  to  pure  white,  except  the  tip  of  the  tail, 
which  is  black.  This  white-clothed  animal  is  the  Ermine, 
whose  fur  is  in  great  request. 

The  Stoat  outvies  the  weasel  in  its  absolute  passion  for 
killing  for  killing's  sake.  It  is  the  deadly  enemy  of  all  small 
animals ;  and  when  it  enters  a  rabbit  warren,  for  example, 
it  ruthlessly  destroys  all  the  young  ones,  even  when  it  is 
gorged  with  blood  and  flesh.  Game  preservers  view  the 
Stoat  with  positive  hatred,  and  Mr.  Westell  states  that  he 
has  seen  as  many  as  fifty  hanging  on  one  keeper's  vermin 
pole.  The  reason  is  not  far  to  seek  when  one  hears  of  fifty 
pheasant  eggs  being  found  in  the  retreat  of  one  pair  of 
Stoats.  Not  one  of  the  eggs  was  even  cracked  1  In 
another  hole  were  found  a  couple  of  dead  but  unmutilated 


THE  POLECAT  163 

leverets,  a  brace  of  young  partridges,  and  a  pheasant's  egg, 
together  with  the  heads  of  two  leverets  in  a  state  of  decom- 
position. This  appears  to  bear  out  that  the  animal  is  fond 
of  putrefied  flesh,  and  that  it  hoards  up  food  until  it  is 
sufficiently  'high.'  The  back  of  the  neck  or  the  throat  is 
the  spot  in  its  prey  which  the  Stoat  seizes,  and  it  will  cling 
to  its  victim,  ravenously  sucking  its  blood,  even  when  it  is 
picked  up. 

The  white  coat  of  the  Ermine  is  the  royal  fur  of  England 
as  well  as  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe.  The  robes  of  the 
Pope  and  Cardinals  of  the  Church  of  Rome  are  also 
adorned  with  the  fur  according  to  their  rank.  Edward  III. 
forbade  the  use  of  ermine  by  any  persons  except  those 
of  royal  birth.  In  our  country,  nowadays,  it  is  officially 
worn  by  royalty,  the  nobility,  and  judges.  The  fur  is 
ornamented  by  the  insertion  at  intervals  of  the  black  tails. 
Royal  personages  alone  wear  ermine  which  is  spotted  with 
black  in  about  every  square  inch,  not  with  tails,  but  from  the 
paws  of  the  Astrachan  lamb.  A  band  of  ermine  with  a 
single  row  of  spots  adorns  the  royal  crown.  Rows  or  bars 
of  the  fur  in  the  case  of  the  scarlet  robes  of  peers,  and 
rows  of  black  spots  on  the  ermine  capes  of  peeresses, 
denote  the  varying  degrees  of  rank  of  the  wearers.  The 
more  common  use  of  ermine  is  for  ladies'  muffs,  tippets, 
trimmings,  and  linings  generally. 

POLECAT  (Putorius  fcetidus). 
Coloured  Plate  IX.  Fig.  4. 

The  Polecat  is  common  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  but 
it  is  now  one  of  the  rarest,  as  it  is  the  largest,  of  the  British 
Weasels,  surviving  only  in  Scotland,  Wales,  Exmoor  and 
Dartmoor,  and  a  few  of  the  largest  woodlands  in  the 
Midlands.  Even  in  the  remotest  of  these  districts  it  is 
so  scarce  that  very  few  persons  have  ever  seen  one  at 
liberty,  and  even  if  they  did  happen  to  catch  sight  of  the 
animal,  doubtless  they  would  view  it  as  one  of  the 
commoner  of  the  Weasel  tribe. 

The  male  is  sixteen  or  seventeen  inches  long  from  the 


164  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

nose  to  the  base  of  the  tail,  which  is  another  six  or  seven 
inches  in  length  ;  the  female  is  four  or  five  inches  shorter. 
The  coat  of  the  Polecat  is  rather  handsome ;  it  is  prin- 
cipally dark  brown,  almost  black,  the  under  fur  being  pale 
yellow,  while  the  head  is  marked  with  black  and  white. 
When  molested,  or  irritated,  the  animal  emits  an  odour 
that  is  markedly  unpleasant.  The  fur,  too,  bears  this  evil 
smell,  but  it  disappears  during  the  preparation  of  the  skin 
for  wear. 

In   disposition   the   Polecat   is    ferocious    to    a    degree, 

destroying  any  small  animal 
with  which  it  comes  in  con- 
tact. It  hunts  rabbits  with 
almost  incredible  fierceness ; 
a  single  Polecat  will  speedily 
clear  a  whole  warren,  for  the 
depredator  will  kill  as  many 
SKULL  OF  THE  POLECAT.  as  twenty  rabbits  at  a  single 

visit,     and     all     without     a 

scarcely  perceptible  wound.  A  few  generations  ago  the 
animal  was  the  terror  of  the  farmyard,  for  if  it  contrived 
to  break  into  a  hen-roost  or  pigeon-loft,  scarcely  a  bird 
could  hope  to  escape  beheadal. 

The  Polecat  is  an  expert  swimmer  and  can  catch  fish. 
Eleven  eels  have  been  found  in  a  single  nest.  In  move- 
ment it  is  extremely  active,  and  when  it  runs  it  arches 
its  back,  giving  it  the  sinuous  snake-like  motion  that  is 
characteristic  of  the  gait  of  the  Weasels. 

FERRET  (Putorius  furo). 
Coloured  Plate  IX.  Fig.  7. 

The  Ferret,  though  of  African  origin,  is  practically  a 
domesticated  variety  of  the  polecat,  if  an  animal  which 
manifests  no  attachment  nor  acquires  any  habits  of 
dependence  can  be  said  to  be  domesticated.  The  animal 
was  first  introduced  into  Spain,  whence  it  has  spread  all 
over  Europe.  It  is  whitish  or  pale  yellow  in  colour  and 
has  red  eyes  ;  and  in  shape  and  disposition,  so  far  as  other 


THE  MINK  165 

animals  are  concerned,  it  is  little  less  bloodthirsty  than  any 
of  its  race.  Only  can  it  be  said  in  its  favour  that  it  can  be 
handled  with  safety  by  persons  accustomed  to  it. 

The  Ferret  is  employed  to  drive  rats  and  rabbits  out  of 
their  burrows ;  in  the  latter  case  it  is  generally  muzzled, 
or  it  would  kill  and  devour  the  rabbits  in  their  holes 
instead  of  driving  them  out  to  the  rabbit-catcher.  But 
though  a  useful  servant  the  Ferret  is  rather  a  perilous  friend, 
as  more  than  one  warrener  has  found  to  his  regret.  A  Ferret 
that  escapes  from  its  cage  into  a  fowl  or  duck  pen  promptly 
gives  bloodthirsty  evidence  of  the  race  to  which  it  belongs  ; 
and  sometimes  it  has  attacked  sleeping  children,  inflicting 
frightful  wounds  on  the  nose,  eyes,  and  lips,  which  have 
afterwards  ended  in  death.  A  man,  too,  was  once  aroused 
from  his  sleep  by  a  Ferret,  which  had  seized  him  near  the 
eyebrow.  So  tenaciously  did  the  creature  hold  on  that 
the  victim  was  only  freed  by  severing  the  Ferret's  head 
from  its  body. 

MINK  (Mustela  lutreola). 
Coloured  Plate  IX.  Fig.  8. 

The  Mink  is  found  in  the  northern  regions  of  both 
hemispheres,  although  it  is  a  stranger  to  Britain.  Of 
several  species  two  only  need  be  mentioned,  viz.,  the 
European  Mink  as  figured  on  the  plate  and  the  American 
Mink  (Mustela  vison). 

This  animal  differs  considerably  in  habits  from  the 
other  species  of  the  genus.  It  is  a  kind  of  water  polecat, 
which  spends  as  much  time  in  the  water  as  it  does  on 
land.  It  feeds  on  the  smaller  mammals,  but  a  great  deal  of 
its  food  consists  of  aquatic  creatures — fish,  frogs,  crayfish, 
etc.  In  disposition  the  Mink  is  by  no  means  so  destructive 
and  voracious  as  its  nearest  relations,  generally  killing  only 
sufficient  to  meet  the  demands  of  its  appetite. 

The  Mink,  with  a  body  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  in 
length,  is  more  stoutly  built  than  the  weasels  already 
described.  Its  fur,  generally  dark  chocolate  in  colour,  is 
particularly  glossy,  with  the  close  felting  of  the  under  fur 


166  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

that  is  specially  adapted  to  resisting  water.  The  fur  of  the 
animal  is  largely  used  for  ladies'  cloaks,  muffs,  and  vic- 
torines,  and  as  many  as  a  quarter  of  a  million  skins  have 
been  imported  into  England  in  a  year. 

In  America  the  Mink  is  often  trained  to  take  the  place  of 
the  ferret,  and  '  Minkeries,'  or  Mink  farms,  have  been  estab- 
lished, where  the  animals  are  reared  for  the  sake  of  their 
furs.  It  is  rather  remarkable  that  a  similar  plan  has  not 
been  adopted  with  the  sable,  for  while  the  skin  of  the 
Mink  only  fetches  from  ten  to  fifteen  shillings,  that  of  the 
sable  is  worth  perhaps  as  many  pounds.  When  the  Mink 
happens  to  be  silver-grey,  it  takes  on  added  value,  six  skins 
making  a  muff  worth  as  much  as  twenty-five  guineas. 

PINE  MARTEN  (Mustela  martes). 
Coloured  Plate  IX.  Fig.  5. 

Of  the  Martens  there  are  two  species,  the  Pine  Marten,  as 
figured  in  the  illustration,  and  the  Beech,  or  Stone,  Marten 
(Mustela  foina).  The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  latter  is 
its  white  throat ;  it  is  not  a  British  animal,  but  is  found  in 
Central  Europe,  extending  into  Asia  as  far  as  Sikkim. 

The  Pine  Marten  is  found  in  the  northern  regions  of  both 
hemispheres  ;  in  Central  Europe  often  in  the  same  neigh- 
bourhood as  the  Beech  Marten  ;  and  only  to  a  small  extent 
in  the  British  Isles.  The  finest  of  the  species  are  the 
Martens  of  Scandinavia,  but  those  of  Ireland,  in  the 
Wicklow  and  Mourne  mountains  in  particular,  are  a  very 
good  second. 

The  body  of  the  Pine  Marten,  slender  and  flexible,  is 
about  twenty  inches  in  length  ;  the  tail  is  long  and  bushy. 
It  is  an  agile,  graceful  animal,  elegantly  furred  in  brown  of 
various  shades,  while  the  under  fur  is  beautifully  soft  and 
of  a  rather  lighter  colour ;  the  throat  is  yellow.  The 
animal's  feet  are  very  cat-like,  and  between  the  naked  pads 
are  densely  furred.  When  annoyed,  the  Marten  arches  its 
back,  erects  its  hair,  and  hisses  like  a  cat.  The  odour  of 
the  animal  is  something  like  musk,  quite  unlike  the  fetid 
smell  of  some  of  its  relations. 


THE  SABLE  167 

Squirrels  are  the  favourite  prey  of  the  Pine  Marten,  but 
none  of  the  smaller  animals  are  rejected,  and  it  does 
not  hesitate  to  attack  and  overcome  lambs  and  young 
fawns.  When  chased  it  takes  flight  in  a  series  of  bounding 
leaps  of  six  or  seven  feet,  generally  making  for  the  nearest 
tree,  up  which  it  darts  with  extraordinary  speed.  The 
female  often  appropriates  the  nest  of  a  squirrel  which  she 
has  eaten,  wherein  to  bring  up  her  young  ones,  or  else 
she  makes  a  nest  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree.  Marten  skins, 
especially  the  Canadian  variety,  are  often  cleverly  [dyed  to 
imitate  real  sable. 


SABLE  (Mustela  zibellind). 
Coloured  Plate  IX.  Fig.  2. 

Some  naturalists  rather  incline  to  the  belief  that  the 
Siberian  Sable  is  but  a  local  variety  of  the  pine  marten  ; 
but  the  conical  head,  larger  ears,  and  bigger  and  stronger 
limbs  of  the  former  denote  a  distinct  species. 

The  fur  of  the  Sable  is  long  and  fine  and  a  rich  dark- 
brown  in  colour.  Though  only  a  small  animal,  its  skin 
is  worth  from  three  to  ten  guineas ;  but  the  darkest  skins, 
which  are  considered  the  best,  rarely  pass  out  of  Russia. 
The  Lord  Mayor,  Aldermen,  and  Sheriffs  of  London 
have  their  official  robes  lined  with  Russian  Sable,  varying 
in  accordance  with  their  respective  ranks.  In  olden  times 
Sable  fur  was  probably  of  still  more  value,  for  a  sixteenth 
century  writer  says  that  a  bale  of  forty  skins  was  worth 
more  than  a  thousand  pieces  of  gold. 

Not  only  is  the  Sable  a  rare  animal,  but  it  dwells  in 
such  inclement  localities  that  none  but  the  hardiest  hunters 
can  venture  upon  its  chase,  especially  as  its  fur  is  only  in 
best  condition  in  the  winter.  The  creature  must  not  be 
shot,  as  the  valuable  fur  would  be  injured,  and  it  is 
therefore  taken  in  '  fall-traps/  which  kill  the  animal  at 
once.  Like  most  of  the  weasels,  the  Sable  is  a  cunning 
animal,  and  not  easily  enticed  into  snares ;  and  if  the 
hunter  finds  one  Sable  in  ten  traps,  he  is  well  satisfied. 

A  Sable  trap  is  simple  in  construction,  consisting  of   a 


168  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

little  staked  inclosure,  in  which  is  placed  the  bait,  with  a 
log  of  wood  or  a  big  stone  overhanging  it.  The  moment 
the  bait  is  touched,  down  falls  the  weight,  which  kills  the 
intruder  at  a  blow.  A  hunter  will  often  set  a  hundred 
and  fifty  traps  in  a  line  extending  for  perhaps  fifty  miles. 
When  he  goes  to  collect  his  spoils,  he  often  finds  that  a 
Wolverene,  Arctic  Fox,  or  other  hungry  carnivore  has 
forestalled  him,  the  first  named,  in  particular,  not  only 
eating  the  captured  animals,  but  artfully  annexing  the 
baits  from  the  still  fixed  traps  by  taking  them  from  the 
rear,  and  thus  avoiding  the  falling  log.  To  add  an  element 
of  danger  to  the  injury,  the  greedy  beast  not  infrequently 
discovers  the  hunter's  cache,  or  provision  store.  It  will 
eat  every  bit  of  animal  food,  such  as  beef,  pork,  bacon, 
and  venison  ;  and  other  food,  as  flour,  oatmeal,  &c.,  it  will 
scatter  about  in  the  snow,  thus  leaving  the  trapper  food- 
less  in  a  region  where  the  thermometer  registers  many 
degrees  below  zero. 

GLUTTON  (Gulo  luscus). 
Coloured  Plate  X.  Fig.  4. 

The  Glutton,  as  it  is  called  in  Europe,  and  Wolverene  in 
America,  the  largest  of  the  Weasel  group,  is  not  at  all  unlike 
a  small  bear.  It  is  found  in  the  northern  regions  of  both 
the  Old  and  the  New  World.  Its  bulky  body  is  nearly 
three  feet  long,  exclusive  of  the  thick,  bushy  tail.  The 
fur  is  long  and  of  a  fine,  deep  chestnut  colour,  with 
a  dark  saddle  on  the  back ;  its  sides  are  a  pale  reddish- 
brown. 

The  feet  are  large  and  hairy  and  furnished  with  strong, 
curved  claws.  The  motion  of  the  animal  is  slow  and 
clumsy,  semi-plantigrade,  and  altogether  in  marked  con- 
trast to  the  movements  of  the  true  Weasels,  which  are 
Digitigrades.  It  is  often  stated  that  the  Wolverene  climbs 
trees,  from  which  it  leaps  to  the  throats  of  animals  as  big 
as  the  Reindeer,  whereas  the  animal  is  not  at  all  a  good 
climber. 

The   Glutton   is   sufficiently   bad   in    character    without 


THE  BADGER  169 

resorting  to  exaggeration.  It  is  notoriously  powerful,  and 
its  strength  is  fittingly  matched  by  its  undoubted  cunning  ; 
and  were  its  size  only  proportionate  to  its  voracious 
appetite,  it  would  be  one  of  the  most  formidable  of  the 
Carnivora. 

It  has  already  been  told  how  the  marten  and  sable  trapper 
is  often  literally  plagued  to  death  by  the  Wolverene's 
artful  depredations.  A  well-known  skilful  trapper  relates 
how  one  of  the  animals  depleted  his  traps  time  after  time, 
until  he  determined  to  devote  his  energies  to  catching  the 
marauder.  He  set  nine  traps  for  three  weeks,  but  while 
the  cunning  creature  carefully  avoided  them,  it  still  stole 
the  baits  and  any  captured  animals  that  were  in  the  simpler 
marten  snares.  The  trapper  next  set  a  spring  gun,  only  to 
find  that  the  Wolverene  gnawed  through  the  string  which 
connected  the  trigger  with  the  bait,  which  it  then  carried 
away  without  fear  of  injury.  Three  times  this  occurred, 
and  then  the  trapper  gave  up  the  task  in  despair,  trusting 
to  find  another  'marten-round'  where  he  would  be  free 
from  the  unwelcome  attentions  of  this  particular  animal. 

The  fur  of  the  Glutton  or  Wolverene  is  valuable,  and 
when  a  trapper  can  catch  his  inveterate  enemy,  there  is 
some  consolation  in  receiving  a  good  price  for  the  pelt  of 
an  animal  that  has  perhaps  deprived  him  of  scores  of 
marten  skins. 

Sub-Family   Melinse. 

BADGER    (Meles    taxus). 

Coloured    Plate    X.    Fig.    5. 

The  common  Badger  is  the  largest  of  the  indigenous 
Carnivora  of  our  own  country,  for  though  it  is  shorter  in 
the  body  than  the  fox,  and  only  one  foot  high  at  the 
shoulder,  its  stout,  broad  body  is  of  rather  clumsy  build. 
One  of  the  heaviest  known  specimens  turned  the  scale 
at  forty-two  pounds. 

Like  the  wolverene,  the  Badger  is  only  semi-plantigrade, 
the  heel  being  slightly  raised  from  the  ground.  Its  long 


1 70  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

feet  have  straight  toes  with  curved  but  rather  blunt,  non- 
retractile  claws,  with  which  the  animal  burrows  with 
wonderful  rapidity.  In  common  with  various  animals  of 
the  family,  the  Badger  can  easily  walk  or  trot  backwards. 
The  hair  is  reddish  or  yellowish  grey,  the  lower  parts 
being  darker,  and  the  head  black  and  white. 

Found  throughout  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  America,  the  Badger  is  still  fairly  common  in  many 
parts  of  the  British  Islands.  It  is  a  perfectly  harmless 
animal  until  provoked  to  defend  itself ;  its  bite  is  particu- 
larly powerful,  and  the  jaws  so  lock  together  that  their 
hold  is  difficult  to  shake  off.  Shy,  wary,  and  nocturnal,  the 


SKELETON  OF  THE  BADGER. 

Badger  is  practically  omnivorous,  living  upon  small  animals, 
insects,  frogs,  roots,  fruits,  &c. 

The  Badger's  burrow  is  very  deep  and  winding,  and  in  it 
is  placed  a  warm  nest  of  dried  grasses  and  bracken.  In 
this  the  three  or  four  young  ones  are  born  at  the  end  of 
March,  but  they  do  not  come  out  into  the  open  until  June. 
Very  often  several  burrows  are  quite  close  to  each  other, 
and  it  is  nothing  uncommon  for  the  female  Badger  to  make 
her  nest  in  a  fox  earth,  even  while  part  of  it  is  tenanted  by 
its  original  owner. 

Like  the  generality  of  weasels,  the  Badger  possesses 
offensive  glands,  the  nature  of  which  is  denoted  in  Burns' s 
poetical  allusion  to  the  'stinking  Brock/  Contrary  to 
general  opinion,  the  Badger,  when  at  liberty,  is  scrupulously 
clean  in  its  ways.  A  gentleman  who  captured  a  young 


THE  BADGER  171 

Badger  in  Bulgaria  speaks  quite  enthusiastically  of  its  good 
qualities  : — 

'  He  lived  with  us  for  years,  and  I  am  able  to  give  him 
an  excellent  character.  There  is  a  saying,  "  smells  like  a 
Badger."  This  is  a  shameful  libel  on  the  cleanest  beast 
I  know.  It  is  only  when  shut  up  in  some  small  place  that 
he  becomes  objectionable,  and  I  am  sure  that,  much  as 
man  dislikes  the  smell,  the  Badger  likes  it  less.  The  grey- 
hounds soon  made  friends  with  him,  and  long  before  he 
was  fully  grown  he  was  their  master,  and  could  roll  them 
over  with  the  greatest  ease.  He  was  omnivorous,  but  the 
treat  of  his  life  was  a  lump  of  sugar,  or,  better  still,  a  little 
honey.  He  slept  under  my  bed  all  the  time  we  were  in  the 
tent,  and  would  follow  me  almost  like  a  dog/ 

Badger-baiting  was  at  one  time  a  very  popular  sport  in 
England.  Even  nowadays  the  discovery  of  one  of  the 
animals  is  the  occasion  for  much  barbarous  treatment. 
Though  naturally  harmless  and  rather  slothful,  scarcely  any 
animal  can  defend  itself  so  obstinately,  or  inflict  keener 
wounds  on  its  adversaries.  Its  skin  is  thick  and  loose, 
permitting  it,  even  when  seized,  to  turn  round  upon  its 
assailants.  Not  infrequently  the  unfortunate  beast  will 
endure  torture  throughout  a  whole  day,  maintaining  the 
unequal  fight  until,  worn  out  by  wounds  and  continual 
reinforcement  of  its  enemies,  it  is  drawn  from  its  hole  and 
forced  to  submit. 

The  skin  of  the  Badger,  dressed  with  the  hair  on,  is 
manufactured  into  pistol-cases,  and  is  often  used  for  cover- 
ing travelling  trunks  ;  the  long  hairs  are  used  for  making 
shaving-brushes  and  painters'  pencils.  In  Italy  and  France 
the  hindquarters  of  the  animal  are  cured  like  hams,  and 
are  said  to  be  superior  to  the  flesh  of  the  hog. 

The  American  Badger  (Taxidea  americana)  is  larger  than 
the  European  species.  In  some  portions  of  the  United 
States  the  animal  is  so  numerous  that  the  burrows  render 
travelling  on  horseback  dangerous. 

The  Cape  Zorilla  (Ictonyx  zorilla),  or  Cape  Polecat,  is 
often  tamed  for  ferreting  purposes.  It  is  striped  something 
like  the  American  skunk,  to  which  it  is  only  second  in 
evil-smelling  qualities. 


172  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

SKUNK    (Mephitis    variant). 
Coloured  Plate  X.  Fig.  2. 

Although,  as  we  have  seen,  the  badger  does  not  possess 
the  vile  odour  with  which  it  has  been  credited,  there  is  a 
North  American  weasel  which  surpasses  all  power  of 
description  in  this  respect.  This  is  the  Skunk,  which  has 
the  power,  when  alarmed,  of  ejecting  with  some  force  a 
secretion  which  none  but  a  Skunk  can  endure.  The  fiery 
liquid  is  discharged  from  two  teats  under  the  tail,  which 
have  a  range  of  twelve  feet.  The  odour  is  so  persistent  that 
if  a  spot  of  the  fluid  should  drop  upon  the  dress  no  amount 
of  washing  suffices  to  purify  it.  If  it  come  in  contact  with 
the  skin  the  whole  system  is  affected,  and  the  victim  is 
nauseated  until  he  would  welcome  sea-sickness  as  an  agree- 
able exchange.  Audubon  declared  that  the  spot  where  an 
animal  was  killed  in  the  autumn  still  retained  the  foul  odour 
when  the  snow  melted  in  the  following  spring. 

Dr.  Coues  states  that  the  evil-smelling  secretion  has  been 
recommended  as  a  cure  for  asthma.  A  story  is  told  of  an 
afflicted  public  speaker  who  used  a  smelling-bottle  in  which 
was  the  loathsome  gland  of  a  Skunk.  In  a  moment  of 
forgetfulness  he  uncorked  the  bottle  while  on  the  platform, 
with  the  result  that  the  audience  incontinently  fled,  gasping 
for  breath,  into  the  street. 

The  Skunk  is  to  be  feared  for  another  reason.  When 
hunters  are  camping  out  it  is  apt  to  gnaw  their  hands  while 
they  sleep,  in  most  cases  causing  death  by  hydrophobia. 

The  animal  figured  in  the  illustration  is  a  North  American 
species ;  its  length  is  about  eighteen  inches,  exclusive  of  the 
tail.  It  is  a  very  handsomely  clothed  creature,  the  soft  fur 
being  generally  dark  brown  or  black,  with  two  white  stripes 
running  from  the  head  to  the  tail,  which  is  an  elegant 
appendage. 

Skunk  fur  is  rid  of  its  offensive  odour  by  being  subjected 
to  great  heat.  If  the  carcass  of  the  animal  is  unsoiled  by 
the  secretion,  the  flesh  is  at  least  eatable.  The  natives 
consider  it  excellent,  but  the  white  man  views  it  with  con- 
siderable suspicion. 


THE  OTTER  173 

The  skunk  is  quite  weasel-like  in  build,  but  the  Teledu 
(Mydaus  meliceps)  is  of  stouter  build  and  more  generally 
resembles  the  badger.  It  is  a  native  of  Java.  In  size  it  is 
about  equal  to  the  skunk,  though  its  shorter  hair  and 
stumpy  tail  give  the  impression  that  it  is  much  smaller.  It 
is  a  confirmed  burrower,  and  when  it  makes  its  way  into 
gardens  and  plantations  it  works  much  damage.  The  land- 
owner almost  cheerfully  suffers  this  injury  rather  than  eject 
the  creature  and  thus  give  rise  to  an  intolerable  stench, 
almost  as  vile  in  character  as  that  emitted  by  the  skunk. 


Sub -Family  Lutrinae. 

OTTER    (Lutra    vulgaris). 

Coloured  Plate  IX.  Fig.  i. 

The  Otters,  while  quite  active  on  land,  are  only  thoroughly 
at  home  when  in  the  water  ;  yet  in  order  to  conform  them  to 
an  aquatic  life  there  is  little  change  in  their  structure  beyond 
the  webbing  of  the  toes,  the  shortening  and  flattening  of  the 
head,  and  the  horizontal  flattening  of  the  tail  into  a  very 
serviceable  rudder. 

The  Common  Otter  is  one  of  the  largest  and  certainly 
one  of  the  most  attractive  of  the  British  Carnivora ;  and  it 
is  more  common  than  is  generally  supposed  where  fish  are 
abundant.  Very  often  the  animal  travels  considerable 
distances  from  river  to  river,  incidentally  straying  into 
special  trout  pools  and  fish-breeding  ponds,  to  its  own 
satisfaction  and  correspondingly  to  the  chagrin  of  the 
owner.  When  the  supply  of  fish  fails  it  will  prey  upon 
birds,  small  animals,  poultry,  and  even  young  lambs 
and  pigs. 

The  Otter  is  about  a  yard  in  length,  of  which  the  tail 
forms  one-third.  The  legs  are  short  and  the  five  toes  are 
webbed  and  fitted  with  blunt  claws ;  the  feet  are  so  placed 
that  they  can  almost  perform  the  action  of  fins.  The 
eyes  of  the  animal  are  placed  nearer  the  nose  than  in 
most  other  animals,  allowing  it  easily  to  see  upwards,  for 
which  reason  the  Otter  generally  pursues  its  prey  from  the 


i74  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

bottom.  The  fur  of  the  animal  consists  of  a  short,  close 
waterproof  vest  of  a  light  grey  colour,  and  a  long,  silky, 
shining  upper  coat  of  a  rich  brown  tint. 

Fierce,  wild,  and  shy,  the  Otter  is  chiefly  nocturnal  in 
habit ;  its  retreat  is  generally  a  burrow  by  the  water's  edge, 
extending  to  some  distance  under  the  bank,  and  concealed 
by  overhanging  brushwood,  tangled  briers,  and  herbage,  or 
by  the  roots  of  an  old  tree. 

Otter-hunting  is  still  a  favourite  so-called  sport  in  several 
districts.  The  moment  the  animal  is  discovered  it  betakes 
itself  to  the  water,  where  it  is  more  than  a  match  for  the 
strongest  dog.  Wearied  out  by  its  exertions  to  escape  its 
foes,  assailed  on  every  side,  covered  with  wounds,  and 
prodded  with  poles  as  it  rises  to  breathe,  still  the  Otter's 


SKULL  OF  THE  OTTER. 
(Two-thirds  natural  size.) 

determined  courage  holds  out  to  the  last,  and  it  dies  without 
uttering  a  cry.  It  requires  no  little  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
hunters  to  effect  the  capture,  for  the  Otter  knows  every  hole, 
drain,  or  other  place  of  refuge  within  several  miles,  and 
never  sleeps  twice  in  the  same  place.  One  animal,  which 
had  long  baffled  the  hounds  and  hunters,  actually  made  its 
hiding-place  inside  the  wheel  of  a  water-mill. 

An  Otter-worry  from  first  to  last  is  a  particularly  odious 
and  cruel  business  that  causes  a  lover  of  animals  to  be 
ashamed  of  his  kind.  In  a  fox-hunt  the  quarry  is  afforded 
an  opportunity  to  escape  from  its  foes — the  pack  is  in  the 
rear  and  an  open  countryside  lies  in  front,  wherein  the  fox 
can  exercise  its  feet  and  its  cunning  to  outwit  its  pursuers. 
The  chase  of  the  poor  Otter  resolves  itself  into  cowardly 
persecution,  pure  and  simple.  Before  the  wretched  hunt 


THE  OTTER  175 

really  begins  all  hope  of  escape  is  cut  off  by  a  cordon  of 
hounds  and  waders  who  block  the  stream  above  and  below. 
The  worry  itself  is  a  series  of  acts  of  cowardice  and  cruelty 
that  would  shame  savages. 

To  see  the  Otter  in  perfection,  two  or  three  of  the 
animals  ought  to  be  in  a  playful  mood,  enjoying  a  skir- 
mish in  the  water,  '  rolling  and  diving,  and  twisting 
and  wrestling,  and  cuddling  and  kissing,  and  biting  and 
scratching,  in  the  most  charming  fashion  that  ever  was 
seen/  The  Otter  chiefly  hunts  the  water  at  night,  but 
daylight  is  no  bar  to  the  satisfaction  of  its  appetite.  In 
December,  1908,  at  Middletown,  in  Ireland,  there  was  a 
tremendous  fight  between  a  great  pike  and  an  Otter  in  the 
local  canal.  The  pair  repeatedly  rose  to  the  surface  and 
dived  again,  the  water  being  coloured  with  blood.  Finally, 
the  Otter,  which  lost  an  ear  in  the  struggle,  killed  the  pike 
and  dragged  it  ashore,  where  the  victor  was  shot  by  an 
onlooker.  The  fish  weighed  twenty-three  pounds,  very  little 
short  of  the  weight  of  the  finest  specimens  of  British  dog 
Otters. 

The  Otter  is  far  from  being  destitute  of  intelligence  and 
docility ;  it  may  be  easily  tamed,  and  has  indeed  been 
frequently  kept  in  a  state  of  domestication.  Bewick  tells 
of  a  Scotsman  who  employed  one  very  successfully  in 
salmon-fishing,  the  animal  sometimes  taking  nine  or  ten 
fish  in  a  day.  It  followed  its  master  like  a  dog,  and  dis- 
played great  confidence  and  attachment.  The  chief 
objection  to  the  Otter  in  a  wild  state  is  that,  when  prey 
is  plentiful,  it  becomes  exceedingly  dainty,  and  after  bring- 
ing a  salmon  ashore  will  merely  bite  a  piece  from  the 
shoulder,  leave  the  fish  on  the  bank,  and  go  after  another. 
The  Scotch  shepherds  who  are  stationed  near  salmon 
streams  find  the  Otter  one  of  their  best  friends,  as  it  keeps 
them  supplied  with  fish  season  after  season. 

In  some  parts  of  the  world  the  Otter  is  quite  extensively 
tamed,  and  taught  to  catch  fish  for  its  master.  The 
Chinese  and  the  Hindoos  are  great  adepts  at  this  art. 
Bishop  Heber  mentions  in  his  journal  that  when  passing 
near  a  river  he  saw  nearly  a  dozen  Otters  lying  on  the  banks, 
tethered  with  straw  collars  and  long  ropes.  They  were 


176  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE   LAND 

of  great  assistance  to  their  masters,  driving  the  shoals  of 
fish  into  the  nets,  and  then  bringing  out  the  largest  in  their 
teeth.  The  good  Bishop  sensibly  remarks  that  '  the  simple 
Hindoo  shows  here  a  better  taste  and  judgment  than 
half  the  Otter-hunting  and  badger-baiting  gentry  of 
England.' 

SEA  OTTER  (Enhydra  marina). 

The  Sea  Otter  is  a  larger  animal  than  its  fresh-water 
cousin,  attaining  a  length  of  four  or  five  feet,  including 
the  tail,  and  weighing  as  much  as  seventy  or  eighty  pounds. 
In  its  strong,  blunt  teeth  the  grinders  do  not  present  any 
cutting  edges,  as  in  most  animals  of  the  Carnivora,  but 
the  surface  of  each  is  raised  into  little  eminences  that  prove 
exceedingly  useful  in  breaking  up  shell-fish,  &c.  There 
is  also  a  difference  in  the  hind  feet,  which  are  long  and 
flipper-like,  each  with  a  surface  of  about  twenty-four  square 
inches,  similar  to  those  of  the  seal. 

The  fur  is  soft,  thick,  and  velvety  ;  it  is  brownish-black 
in  colour,  with  long  stiff  hairs,  grizzled  at  the  tips,  which 
assist  to  give  the  whole  coat  a  hoar-frosted  appearance. 
The  Sea  Otter  is  gregarious,  often  being  found  in  bands 
numbering  hundreds  of  animals.  When  undisturbed  they 
spend  a  great  deal  of  time  floating  or  swimming  on  their 
backs ;  they  frequently  devour  prey  in  this  attitude  ;  and 
the  female  thus  supports  her  young  one  on  her  chest,  even 
while  she  is  asleep.  The  flesh  of  the  young  Otter  is 
considered  a  delicacy,  and  is  said  to  be  not  unlike  lamb  in 
flavour. 

The  Sea  Otter  never  was  a  very  common  animal,  not 
even  in  its  particular  habitat,  the  eastern  and  western 
shores  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  from  Alaska  to 
California,  and  from  Kamschatka  to  the  Yellow  Sea. 
As  a  good  Otter  skin  is  valued  at  -£40,  there  is  little  wonder 
that  the  creature  is  remorselessly  hunted. 

Formerly  the  Otter  was  either  speared  or  clubbed.  In 
the  first  case  a  number  of  boats,  each  manned  by  a 
couple  of  men,  would  be  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  an 
animal.  Whenever  it  came  up  to  breathe  it  was  forced 
instantly  to  dive  again,  repeating  the  operation  until  the 


Plate   X. 


5.  Badger 


6.  Raccoon 


THE  RACCOON  177 

Otter  could  dive  no  longer,  when  it  was  speared  and  drawn 
into  the  boat.  Clubbing  was  a  winter  method.  During 
the  frequent  gales  the  Otters,  to  avoid  the  wind,  often 
bury  their  heads  in  the  sea  kelp  near  to  the  outlying 
rocks.  Under  cover  of  the  noise  of  the  storm  the  hunters 
were  enabled  to  despatch  one  animal  after  another  without 
disturbing  the  main  body.  In  this  manner  two  men  have 
been  known  to  slay  as  many  as  eighty  Otters  in  a  couple 
of  hours. 

Nowadays  the  rifle  is  the  chief  means  employed  to 
capture  the  Sea  Otter,  and  as  the  head  offers  a  fair  mark 
even  at  a  distance  of  a  thousand  yards,  it  is  a  far  easier 
method  than  the  old  style.  The  Otter  rifleman  plies  his 
business  throughout  the  year,  and  consequently  there  is 
little  wonder  that  Sea  Otter  skins  get  fewer  and  fewer 
each  season. 


FAMILY    PROCYONID^E. 

RACCOON  (Procyon  lotor). 
Coloured    Plate   X.   Fig.   6. 

Though  in  appearance  animals  of  the  Raccoon  type  differ 
from  each  other  very  considerably,  they  are  all  distant 
cousins  to  the  bears,  from  which  they  are  chiefly  dis- 
tinguished by  their  inferior  size  and  the  possession  of  two 
true  molar  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  jaw. 

The  Raccoon  of  North  America  ranges  from  British 
Columbia  to  Paraguay.  It  derives  its  specific  name  of 
lotor  or  ' washer'  in  consequence  of  its  habit  of  rinsing 
its  food  in  water  before  eating  it.  A  female  Raccoon  in 
the  Zoological  Gardens  washed  her  kittens  so  frequently 
that  they  died  from  the  effects  of  their  mother's  mistaken 
zeal. 

The  animal  is  arboreal  and  nocturnal  in  habit,  climbing 
trees  with  great  facility,  and  sleeping  in  the  hollows  of 
trunks.  It  is  a  restless,  prying  creature,  and  when  tamed  is 
an  interesting,  if  mischievous,  pet.  In  body  it  is  short  and 

13 


178  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

stout,  and  generally  about  the  size  of  a  fox.  The  general 
colour  is  blackish  grey,  and  the  bushy  tail  is  ringed  with 
bands  of  black  hair.  Its  food  is  extremely  varied,  ranging 
from  vegetable  to  animal,  as  occasion  serves.  It  is  rather 
apt  to  invade  hen-roosts,  but  otherwise  does  little  harm. 
The  fur  is  valuable  and  makes  very  handsome  carriage 
rugs,  and  the  flesh  is  peculiarly  good  to  eat. 

A  'Coon  hunt  used  to  be  one  of  the  favourite  amuse- 
ments of  the  negroes  when  slavery  was  still  practised  in  the 
United  States.  When  the  animal  lives  near  the  coast  it 
adds  oysters,  mussels,  and  crabs  to  its  diet.  To  catch  the 
last  named  the  Raccoon  hangs  its  tail  just  on  the  surface  of 
the  water.  As  soon  as  the  crab  grips  it  in  mistake  for 
food,  the  animal  whisks  it  out  of  the  water,  and  then,  seizing 
it  from  behind,  greedily  devours  its  prey. 

COAITI  (Nasua  rufa). 
Coloured  Plate  X.  Fig.  3. 

The  Coaiti-mondi  is  a  native  of  South  America.  The 
generic  name  of  nasua  signifies  'nosy,'  and  a  glance  at 
the  illustration  will  show  the  great  length  and  extraordinary 
mobility  of  the  snout,  which  by  no  means  adds  to  the 
animal's  beauty. 

The  covering  of  the  Red  Coaiti  is  short  and  reddish-brown 
in  colour,  and  the  thick  tail  is  ringed  with  black  and 
brownish-yellow.  The  animal  is  longer  in  the  body 
than  the  Raccoon  ;  but  with  its  short  limbs,  and  the  inqui- 
sitive manner  in  which  it  continually  turns  its  snout  in  all 
directions,  it  is  not  nearly  so  attractive.  Like  the  Raccoon, 
the  Coaiti  is  a  great  tree-climber,  and,  indeed,  is  almost  equal 
to  the  monkey  in  that  respect.  It  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits, 
sleeping  during  the  day,  with  its  bushy  tail  curled  over  its 
long  nose.  When  hunted  it  fights  desperately,  and  it 
behoves  one  to  avoid  its  double-edged  canine  teeth. 

Another  species  of  Coaiti,  called  the  Quasje  (Nasua 
nasica),  is  a  Central  American  animal,  differing  in  no 
important  respect  from  the  foregoing,  except  that  there  is 
no  red  tint  in  its  coat. 


VARIOUS  RACCOON  TYPES  179 

KINKAJOU  (Cercoleptes  caudivolvulus). 
Coloured  Plate  X.  Fig.  i. 

The  Kinkajou  derives  its  name  from  two  words,  Greek 
and  Latin  respectively,  both  of  which  mean  '  twisted  tail/ 
given  to  the  lovely  furry  creature  in  allusion  to  its  pre- 
hensile appendage,  which  is  nearly  as  flexible  as  that  of 
the  spider  monkey.  The  earlier  naturalists  classed  the 
Kinkajou  among  the  Lemurs.  Though  it  has  no  opposable 
thumb  and  the  fingers  are  webbed  very  nearly  to  the 
claws,  the  animal  holds  food  in  one  hand,  breaking  pieces 
off  with  the  other  in  a  manner  almost  human.  The  tongue 
is  extremely  long  and 
flexible,  the  owner  using 
it  for  the  purpose  of 
extracting  insects  from 
the  crevices  in  which 
they  are  lurking.  When 
asleep  it  rolls  itself  into 
a  ball.  It  will  also  sit 
demurely  on  its  hind 
legs  like  a  Scotch  terrier.  SKULL  OF  THE  KINKAJOU. 

(Two-thirds  natural  size.) 

There  are  other  mem- 
bers of  the  raccoon  family  that  deserve  brief  mention. 
The  Cacomistle  (Bassaris  astuta)  of  California,  Texas,  and 
Mexico  is  often  called  the  Ring-tailed  Cat.  Miners,  in 
particular,  capture  the  animal  and  tame  it,  and  in  a 
mining  camp  a  mousing  Cacomistle  will  always  fetch  a 
good  price. 

The  Panda  (&lurus  fulgens),  whose  generic  name  means 
'waving  tail/  is  another  beautiful  cat-like  creature,  mostly 
found  in  the  Eastern  Himalaya.  Its  coat  is  a  rich  red 
chestnut,  darkening  into  jet  black  on  the  under  parts,  another 
example  of  the  converse  to  the  general  rule.  It  is  a  pity 
that  the  beautifully  coloured  animal  does  not  exist  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  render  its  fur  a  more  common  article 
of  commerce. 


i8o  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

FAMILY   URSID2E   (BEARS). 

The  Ursine  family  (Lat.,  ursus,  a  bear)  consists  of  bulky 
animals  with  thick  fur,  the  largest  beasts  of  prey  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere.  All  of  them  are  plantigrade  and 
markedly  deliberate  in  gait.  On  each  foot  are  five  toes, 
furnished  with  strong  curved  claws.  Though  the  claws  are 
often  five  inches  long  over  the  outside  curve,  being  non- 
retractile  they  get  worn  down  at  their  tips  through  coming 
into  contact  with  the  ground  ;  thus  in  conflict  with  another 
thickly-haired  animal  a  Bear  can  inflict  but  little  injury. 
Most  of  the  Bears  are  admirable  climbers  of  trees,  and 
some  species  seem  to  pass  most  part  of  their  existence 
among  the  branches. 

The  Bears  possess  the  teeth  of  the  true  carnivores,  differ- 
ing technically  from  their  nearest  relations  only  by  having 
two  molar  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  and  three  in 
the  lower  jaw.  The  canine  teeth  are  large  and  strong,  but 
not  nearly  so  prominent  as  in  the  cat  and  dog  tribes. 
There  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  jaws  from  those  of  the 
Carnivora  generally.  The  Bear's  jaws  are  not  limited  to  a 
scissor-blade  movement ;  it  can  work  them  from  side  to 
side,  and  chew  to  a  pulp  roots,  &c.,  which  it  could  not 
possibly  swallow  whole.  Except  in  the  case  of  one  species, 
Bears  are  not  strictly  carnivorous,  for  in  addition  to  animal 
food  they  eat  largely  of  roots  and  fruits,  and  in  particular 
they  are  fond  of  honey ;  but  even  the  Polar  Bear,  whose 
diet  is  chiefly  animal  food,  and  the  Sloth  Bear,  which  is  a 
vegetarian,  have  exactly  the  same  kind  of  teeth  and  similar 
jaw  movement. 

In  cold  regions,  from  October  to  March  some  of  the 
female  Bears  hibernate  in  hollow  trees,  caves,  or  collections 
of  branches  and  moss,  during  which  time  birth  is  given  to 
the  young ;  the  males  and  younger  females  do  not  take 
an  unbroken  rest.  Though  most  Bears  do  not,  as  a  rule, 
molest  human  beings,  it  is  best  to  give  them  a  wide  berth 
when,  gaunt  and  hungry,  they  wake  up  from  their  long 
fast. 

Compared  to  the  cats  the  Bears  are  clumsy  and  shuffling 
in  movement,  their  coats  are  more  sombre,  and  in  teeth, 


THE  BROWN  BEAR  181 

claws,  muscularity  and  agility,  there  is  an  all-round  in- 
feriority. Nor  have  the  Bears  so  wide  a  range  as  the 
Felidae,  for  though  they  are  found  in  both  hemispheres, 
there  are  vast  regions  from  which  they  are  excluded. 
They  are  unknown  in  Africa,  south  of  the  Sahara,  and  are 
absent  from  not  only  the  true  Australasian  regions,  but 
also  from  many  of  the  islands  of  the  south-east  of  Asia, 
where  various  members  of  the  cat  tribe  abound. 


BROWN    BEAR    (Ursus    arctos). 
Coloured  Plate  XI.  Fig.  i. 

The  Brown  Bear  is  not  only  the  commonest,  but  is  the 
most  typical  species  of  the  whole  tribe.  Its  range  extends 
throughout  almost  the  whole  of  Europe,  particularly  Russia, 
Scandinavia,  Central  Europe,  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Balkan 
Peninsula ;  in  Asia  it  is  found  throughout  Siberia  to  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific  ;  and  it  also  inhabits  the  colder  regions 
of  North  America. 

There  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  this  Bear  at  one  time 
existed  in  Britain,  for  the  Romans  exported  the  beast  to 
fight  in  the  arena.  The  citizens  of  Norwich  sent  annually 
to  Edward  the  Confessor  a  Bear  and  six  dogs  with  which  to 
bait  it ;  and  there  is  rather  a  shadowy  record  that  one  of  the 
Gordon  family  killed  a  fierce  animal  in  Scotland  in  1057. 
Bear-baiting  and  whipping  the  blinded  Bear  were  con- 
sidered sports  sufficiently  refined  to  please  Queen  Elizabeth  ; 
but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  by  that  time  the  Bear  had 
been  exterminated  in  Britain,  and  that  animals  were  im- 
ported from  the  Continent  to  make  sport  for  British  holiday 
crowds. 

The  Brown  Bear  is  the  largest  of  the  European  Carnivora, 
if  we  except  the  Polar  Bear,  which  is  found  in  the  frozen 
regions  of  the  extreme  north.  In  length  from  five  to  seven 
feet,  and  standing  about  three  and  a  half  feet  high  at  the 
shoulder,  the  Bear,  with  its  long  and  shaggy  dark  brown  coat 
and  shambling  gait,  is  an  uncouth-looking  brute. 

Not  only  are  the  Bears  plantigrade,  but  the  lower  surface 
of  the  foot  is  so  large  that  when  they  fight  they  stand  nearly 


i82  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

erect  upon  the  hind  feet  and  strike  with  the  armed  fore 
paws.  The  power  of  the  Bear's  stroke  is  terrible,  and  is  the 
more  to  be  dreaded  because  it  is  as  quick  as  it  is  strong.  No 
trained  boxer  can  deliver  a  blow  more  swift  or  more  true 
than  that  of  the  Bear.  Many  writers  assert  that  it  clasps 
its  antagonist  in  its  arms,  and  squeezes  him  with  such  force 
that  it  drives  all  the  breath  out  of  his  body.  It  is  almost 
useless  to  attack  a  Bear  with  a  club  or  the  stock  of  a  rifle. 
The  Bear  wards  off  the  blows  with  perfect  ease,  strikes 
the  weapon  out  of  the  hands  of  its  assailant,  and  then 
closes  to  claw  and  bite  rather  than  hug  him. 

In  food  most  Bears  are  omnivorous,  and  are  exceedingly 
fond  of  fruit ;  and,  as  Mr.  Lloyd,  a  well-known  Bear-hunter, 
tells  us  of  the  Brown  Bear,  'he  feeds  on  roots  and  the 
leaves  and  small  limbs  of  the  aspen,  mountain  ash,  and  other 
trees.  He  is  also  fond  of  succulent  plants,  such  as  the 
mountain  thistle,  &c,,  and  partial  to  many  berries  common 
to  the  Scandinavian  forests.  Ripe  corn  he  also  eats,  and 
sometimes  commits  no  small  havoc  among  it ;  for,  seating 
himself  on  his  haunches  in  a  field  of  it,  he  collects  in  his 
outstretched  arms  nearly  a  sheaf  at  a  time,  the  ears  of  which 
he  then  devours/ 

Cattle-owners  have  but  little  fear  of  the  Bear,  for  it  much 
prefers  vegetable  food — varied  occasionally  with  wasp  and 
bee  grubs — to  the  flesh  of  animals ;  but  now  and  then 
a  Bear  does  take  to  cattle-killing,  and  then  becomes  the 
terror  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  must  be  destroyed.  The 
usual  mode  of  killing  the  Bear  in  Scandinavia  is  by  a  shall, 
i.e.,  by  finding  its  den,  surrounding  the  spot  with  a  large 
body  of  armed  men,  and  then  closing  upon  the  animal  from 
all  sides.  The  flesh  of  the  Bear  being  very  good  to  eat,  and 
its  skin  always  fetching  a  high  price,  a  successful  skall  repays 
the  hunters  for  their  trouble.  Bears'  paws  are  considered  a 
great  delicacy,  and  after  being  salted  and  smoked  were  often 
reserved  for  the  tables  of  princes  in  Germany.  Occasionally 
Bear's  flesh  is  obtainable  in  London,  where  it  is  eaten 
chiefly  out  of  curiosity. 

The  Bears  of  Russia  in  particular  are  of  great  size,  and  in 
winter  their  coats  are  in  magnificent  condition,  and  are  in 
great  request  among  Russian  nobles  for  warm  sledge  rugs. 


PLATE  XVI. 


GRIZZLY    BEAR. 


PLATE  XVII. 


i.     MALAYAN   BEAR.  2.     SLOTH    BEAR. 

(See  page  188) 

(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


THE  GRIZZLY  BEAR  183 

Some  of  the  finest  skins  obtainable  are  used  for  making  the 
caps  of  our  Grenadier  and  Coldstream  Guards. 

The  Bear  swims  well  and  fast,  and  is  fond  of  bathing  in 
the  heat  of  summer ;  its  climbing  powers  are  well  known  : 
all  who  have  visited  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society 
have  witnessed  the  feat  of  mounting  the  pole  for  the  tempt- 
ing morsel  proffered  as  a  reward.  In  descending  a  tree  or 
precipice  it  always  comes  down  backwards,  much  resembling 
a  human  being  in  its  actions  and  cautious  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding. 

The  Brown  Bear,  when  caught  young,  is  rather  easily 
tamed,  but  its  temper  is  always  uncertain ;  and  sometimes 
without  preliminary  warning  it  will  ferociously  bite  any  one 
with  whom  it  has  hitherto  been  on  friendly  terms.  The  so- 
called  dancing  Bears  sometimes  seen  in  our  streets  were 
formerly  chiefly  the  Alpine  variety,  but,  the  Swiss  supply 
failing,  nowadays  most  of  the  animals  come  from  the 
Pyrenees  or  Roumania. 

The  American  Brown  Bear,  distinct  altogether  from  the 
Grizzly,  is  still  larger  than  the  Russian,  and  especially  is 
this  the  case  in  Alaska.  A  skin  of  nine  feet  across  the 
shoulders,  and  requiring  two  men  to  carry  it,  is  by  no 
means  a  rarity. 

GRIZZLY   BEAR  (Ursus  ferox). 
Plate  XVI. 

The  Grizzly  Bear,  now  found  only  in  the  Northern 
Rockies,  is  the  most  formidable  animal  of  the  North 
American  Continent,  as  it  is  the  most  ferocious  of  the  Bear 
tribe.  It  commonly  grows  to  a  length  of  eight  or  nine  feet, 
with  an  average  weight  of  about  eight  hundred  pounds. 
Sir  Samuel  Baker  asserted  that  the  commoner  Brown  Bear 
is  often  mistaken  for  the  Grizzly,  which  latter  may  weigh 
anything  up  to  fourteen  hundred  pounds,  which  is  about 
the  weight  of  an  English  cart-horse ;  and  of  all  the  Bears 
the  real  Grizzly,  or  '  Old  Ephraim,'  is  the  most  dreaded. 

The  more  correct  title  is  '  Grisly '  in  reference  to  its 
ferocious  character,  rather  than  one  applied  to  the  coat  of 


i84  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

brown  hair  grizzled  with  white  ;  its  feet  and  paws  are 
enormous,  with  claws  six  inches  in  length.  Its  strength 
may  be  gauged  from  its  ability  to  drag  to  a  considerable 
distance  the  carcass  of  a  buffalo  weighing  not  much  less 
than  half  a  ton. 

The  Grizzly  has  no  liking  for  vegetable  food  so  long  as 
flesh  is  obtainable,  and  its  ferocious  disposition  leads  it  to 
attack  man,  when  other  species  would  use  all  their  energies 
in  taking  to  flight.  To  its  savage  nature  this  Bear  adds  a 
tenacity  of  life  that  makes  it  a  doubly  dangerous  foe.  It 
has  been  known  to  receive  five  balls  actually  through  the 
lungs,  and  five  others  in  different  parts  of  the  body,  and 
yet  be  left  with  sufficient  vitality  to  chase  a  couple  of 
hunters  into  a  river,  where,  fortunately,  a  shot  from  a  third 
man  on  the  bank  penetrated  the  brain,  just  as  the  infuriated 
animal  was  about  to  seize  one  of  its  enemies. 

Hunters  in  the  Rockies  tell  of  marvellous  escapes  from 
death  when  at  close  quarters  with  the  Grizzly.  More  than 
once  men  have  saved  their  lives  at  a  critical  moment  by 
feigning  death,  when  an  enraged  animal  would  cease  to 
maul  them.  One  trapper,  who  had  been  stunned,  awoke  to 
the  fact  that  he  was  '  dead  and  buried.'  It  is  characteristic 
of  the  Bear  to  store  surplus  food,  and  during  the  man's  un- 
consciousness the  huge  beast  had  scratched  out  a  shallow 
hole,  into  which  it  tumbled  the  body  and  lightly  covered  it 
with  mould  and  leaves.  When  the  Bear  later  in  the  day 
returned  to  dine  at  its  leisure,  the  prospective  meal  had 
recovered  his  rifle,  and  from  a  safe  spot  was  enabled  to  turn 
the  tables  on  '  Old  Ephraim.' 

SYRIAN   BEAR   (Ursus  syriacus). 

Another  variety  of  the  Brown  Bear  and  the  oldest  of 
which  we  have  historical  record,  is  the  Syrian  Bear,  found 
in  various  parts  of  Western  Asia.  Judging  from  the 
frequent  references  to  the  Bear  in  Scripture,  in  Biblical 
times  it  was  probably  common  where  now  it  is  very  rare. 
The  native  haunt  of  the  Syrian  Bear  to-day  is  only  the 
remote  fastnesses  of  the  wooded  heights  of  Hermon  and 
Lebanon.  It  is  narrated  that  David  had  to  defend  his 


THE  POLAR  BEAR  185 

flocks  against  this  Bear,  and  again  that  '  there  came  forth 
two  she-Bears  out  of  a  wood  and  tare  forty  and  two  of 
them/  when  the  children  of  Bethel  mocked  at  Elisha. 
There  is  now  practically  no  timber  in  Judaea,  and  with  the 
gradual  destruction  of  its  shelter  the  Bear  has  retreated 
further  east  of  the  Jordan. 

Several  times  in  the  Scriptures  the  Bear's  ferocity  when 
deprived  of  its  young  is  used  as  a  simile,  e.g.,  '  Let  a  Bear 
robbed  of  her  whelps  meet  a  man,  rather  than  a  fool  in 
his  folly'  (Prov.  xvii.  12).  A  female  Bear  guarding  her 
young  is  a  most  dangerous  animal ;  she  will  fight  to  the 
death  on  their  behalf,  and  in  her  expiring  moments  her 
sole  concern  is  wrapped  up  in  the  safety  of  her  progeny. 

The  Syrian  Bear  is  not  a  large  animal,  little  more  than 
a  third  of  the  size  which  the  common  Brown  Bear  some- 
times attains.  Its  chief  depredations  are  confined  to  steal- 
ing corn,  apples,  and  grapes  from  the  vineyards. 

POLAR  BEAR  (Ursus  maritimus). 
Coloured  Plate  XI.  Fig.  2. 

The  Polar  Be*r,  Ice  Bear,  or  White  Bear,  is  so  called 
from  the  region  it  inhabits,  or  the  creamy  yellowish  fur  of 
its  coat.  It  is  found  on  the  desolate  shores  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean  in  both  hemispheres  ;  and  it  is  one  of  the  few 
animals  that  make  no  attempt  by  migration  to  escape  the 
rigours  of  the  terrible  winter.  It  is  found  sometimes  in 
Iceland,  but  only  when  it  has  reached  the  island  on  a 
berg  or  drifting  ice. 

Though  not  so  bulky  as  the  grizzly,  the  Polar  Bear  is 
longer  in  the  body.  The  animal  is  a  mighty  swimmer  ;  it  is 
as  light  as  a  cork,  and  the  broad  feet  make  excellent  paddles. 
Upon  occasions  it  is  seen  swimming  eighty  miles  from  land, 
with  not  so  much  as  an  icefloe  in  sight ;  and  at  other  times 
it  will  drift  hundreds  of  miles  on  iceberg  or  floe,  feeding 
upon  the  seals  around  it. 

As  it  lives  among  ice,  and  often  has  to  capture  the  seal, 
or  even  the  walrus,  as  the  prey  lies  upon  a  glassy  surface, 
the  under  surface  of  the  paws  is  covered  with  a  dense 


186  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

coating   of   hair,   so  that  it  can  traverse   the   ice   without 
slipping,  while  its  footsteps  are  absolutely  noiseless. 

The  Polar  Bear  has  a  very  remarkable  way  of  attacking 
the  walrus.  Now,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  walrus 
is  nearly  equal  in  bulk  to  a  small  elephant,  weighing  some- 
thing in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  ton,  and  is,  moreover, 
armed  with  a  pair  of  terrible  tusks.  The  usual  mode  of 
attack  is  for  the  Bear  to  creep  up  behind  a  sleeping  walrus, 
and  then  to  spring  on  its  shoulders,  maintain  its  hold  with 
one  paw,  and  with  the  other  to  deal  such  terrific  blows  at 
the  marine  mammal's  head  that  the  skull  is  fractured  before 
the  animal  can  gain  the  water.  Should  the  prey  succeed  in 


SKELETON  OF  THE  POLAR  BEAR. 
(About  one-eighteenth  natural  size.) 

reaching  water,  the  walrus  has  the  best  of  the  battle,  as  it 
dives  to  depths  which  are  too  great  for  the  endurance  of 
the  Bear,  and  thus  rids  itself  of  its  foe. 

In  stalking  seals,  or  even  man,  the  huge  carnivore 
exhibits  the  greatest  cunning,  taking  care  to  hide  its  black 
muzzle,  which  is  the  only  part  of  its  body  likely  to  show 
against  its  frozen  surroundings.  In  capturing  seals  it  is 
remarkably  adept,  diving  under  a  floe  and  appearing  at  the 
hole,  which  is  the  only  retreat  open  to  the  easily  alarmed 
prey. 

The  Polar  Bear  grows  to  an  immense  size,  sometimes 
attaining  a  length  of  thirteen  feet.  One,  which  measured 


i 


Plate   XL 


1.  Brown  Bear 


2.  Polar  Bear 


THE  POLAR  BEAR  187 

seven  feet  eight  inches  in  length,  weighed  over  eleven 
hundred  pounds.  The  skin  of  this  animal  was  placed  in 
the  national  collection.  Another,  which  measured  nearly 
a  foot  longer,  weighed  sixteen  hundred  pounds.  And  the 
Bear's  strength  is  in  proportion  to  its  size,  or  it  could  not, 
for  example,  hoist  a  dead  walrus  out  of  the  water  on  to  the 
ice,  there  to  enjoy  a  leisured  repast. 

A  White  Bear  at  bay  is  an  exceedingly  dangerous  animal, 
for,  unlike  its  more  sombre-clothed  cousins,  it  does  not 
attempt  to  hug  the  foe,  but  furiously  bites  and  claws  at 
every  opportunity.  If  there  are  two  hunters  opposed  to 
the  animal,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  overcome  it,  since 
when  it  turns  with  its  upraised  arms  to  counter  the  assault 
of  one,  it  exposes  its  other  side  to  the  second  hunter,  who 
is  able  to  inflict  a  death-wound. 

If  the  hunter  be  alone,  he  recognises  the  harder  task,  but 
does  not  hesitate.  He  first  provokes  the  animal,  and  then 
runs  as  if  to  escape,  knowing  that  the  Bear  will  pursue  him. 
With  a  rapid  jump  the  hunter  suddenly  doubles  on  his 
track,  and  the  exasperated  beast  in  the  act  of  turning  is 
pierced  with  a  lance  below  the  shoulder.  Unless  the 
thrust  is  a  dexterous  one,  inflicting  vital  injury,  the  hunter 
has  to  leave  his  spear  in  the  side  of  his  prey  and  seek  his 
own  safety  in  flight,  about  which  there  is  then  no  pretence. 
But,  aided  by  his  dogs,  the  hunter  seldom  fails  to  overcome 
his  huge  adversary. 

The  flesh  of  the  Polar  Bear  is  not  in  such  good  repute  as 
that  of  the  brown  species.  Arctic  explorers  assert  that  some 
portions  of  the  body  are  poisonous,  and  sailors  have  certainly 
fallen  ill  after  partaking  of  it.  The  Bear  is  a  notoriously  foul 
feeder — fish,  flesh,  or  fowl,  living  or  dead,  fresh  or  putrid, 
nothing  is  rejected.  When  whaling  was  more  followed 
than  it  is  nowadays,  the  Bear  had  greater  opportunities 
of  gorging  on  decaying  offal  which  the  whalers  left  in 
their  track,  and  in  all  probability  a  prolonged  diet  of  putrid 
food  had  more  than  a  little  to  do  with  the  unwholesome- 
ness  of  the  Bear's  own  flesh. 

The  Polar  Bear  is  by  no  means  hard  to  keep  in  captivity 
in  England,  notwithstanding  the  inability  to  provide  it  with 
anything  like  its  accustomed  environment.  One  animal 


i88  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  LAND 

lived  at  the  Zoo  for  over  thirty  years.  In  November,  1908, 
a  young  Polar  Bear  was  born  in  Regent* s  Park,  the  first  since 
1866,  when  an  animal  was  born  and  died  the  same  day. 
This  tiny  fluffy  new  arrival  was  about  the  size  of  a  kitten. 
In  a  natural  state  the  White  Bear  has  the  reputation  of 
being  a  most  devoted  mother  ;  but  the  one  in  captivity 
made  no  attempt  to  sustain  the  character  of  her  tribe.  The 
little  one  was  born  at  9  a.m.,  and  the  only  notice  the 
mother  took  of  it  was  to  pick  it  up  by  the  neck  or  leg  and 
then  drop  it  heavily  on  to  the  hard  concrete  floor  of  the 
den.  It  was  rescued  at  the  end  of  three-quarters  of  an  hour 
only  just  in  time  to  avoid  its  immediate  death  from  cold 
and  exposure.  A  retriever  foster-mother  was  obtained  for 
the  little  creature,  but  all  to  no  purpose,  for  it  lived  only 
a  few  hours  longer. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  there  are  various  species 
of  the  Bear  family.  The  Black  Bear  (Ursus  americanus) 
is  the  smallest  of  the  American  Bears  and  is  practically 
harmless,  except  that  it  frequently  ravages  the  maize-fields. 
The  Malayan  Bear  (Ursus  malayanus),  Plate  XVII.  Fig.  i, 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  neighbouring  islands,  is  a  great 
honey-eater,  and,  in  addition,  does  much  damage  in  the 
cocoa  plantations.  The  Spectacled  Bear  (Ursus  ornatus)  of 
South  America  is  a  black-coated  animal  with  dirty  yellow 
rings  around  its  eyes. 

The  Indian  Sloth  Bear  (Melursus  ursinus),  Plate  XVII. 
Fig.  2,  is  a  rough,  clumsy  animal  with  an  elongated 
muzzle  and  remarkably  mobile  lips,  which  it  protrudes  and 
retracts  with  wonderful  facility.  This  modification  of  the 
mouth  enables  the  creature  to  pick  up  ants  and  grubs. 
Although  it  only  weighs  from  two  to  three  hundred  pounds 
it  is  a  formidable  little  beast ;  and  Sir  Samuel  Baker  was  of 
opinion  that  it  caused  more  accidents  to  Indian  natives  than 
any  other  animal.  Major  C.  S.  Cumberland  says  that,  when 
wounded,  the  Sloth  Bear  '  is  a  perfect  fiend,  rushing  about 
hither  and  thither,  clawing  and  biting  anything  he  comes 
against,  yelling  and  roaring  all  the  time.'  This  Bear 
often  raids  the  natives'  palm-juice  vessels,  with  the  result 
that  it  retires  to  its  den  in  a  sad  state  of  intoxication. 


Chapter  VII 


ORDER  IV.— CARNIVORA  (continued) 
SUB-ORDER  2.— CARNIVORA  OF  THE  SEA 


General  description  of  the  Pinnipedia— Com- 
mon Seal  —  Grey  Seal  —  Bladder-nose  or 
Crested  Seal — Greenland  Seal— Sea  Leopard 
—  Sea  Elephant  —  Sea  Lion  —  Sea  Bear  or 
Northern  Fur  Seal — Walrus. 


CHAPTER  VII 

Order  IV. — Carnivora  (continued) 

Sub-Order  2.— CARNIVORA  OF  THE  SEA 

PASSING  from  the  Carnivora  of  the  land  to  those  of  the 
sea,  we  come  to  the  Pinnipedia  (Lat.,  pinna,  a  fin  ; 
pes,  pedis,  a  foot),  the  fin-footed  animals,  or  Seals,  which 
include  the  Sea  Lions  and  the  Walrus.  Various  other 
marine  carnivores  (Cetacea)  form  an  order  of  their  own. 

Before  describing  the  life-history  of  any  particular 
member  of  the  sub-order,  it  will  be  well  to  examine  the 
skeleton  of  the  Seal,  and  note  how,  by  certain  modifications 
of  the  bones,  the  mammal  practically  becomes  a  fish,  just  as 
in  the  Bats  it  is  in  reality  transformed  into  a  bird. 

The  name  Pinnipedia  is  very  appropriate,  as  is  the 
alternative  name  Pinnigrada  (Lat.,  pinna,  a  fin  ;  gradus, 
a  step).  The  limbs  are  shortened,  and  are  so  arranged  that 
they  act  exactly  like  the  pectoral  fins  and  tail  of  a  fish. 
The  hind  limbs,  especially,  are  directed  backwards,  and 
the  bones  are  so  modified  that,  when  the  feet  are  pressed 
together,  they  can  be  swept  from  side  to  side  as  if  they  were 
the  tail  fin  of  a  fish.  Indeed,  as  the  Seal  feeds  on  fish,  as 
does  the  otter,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  swifter  than 
its  prey.  In  the  otter  the  tail  is  the  propelling  organ  ;  but 
in  the  Seal  the  hind  limbs  are  used  in  tail  fashion. 

In  the  water  the  movements  of  the  Seal  are  extremely 
graceful  and  rapid,  but  on  land  its  motions  are  exceedingly 
awkward.  The  limbs,  even  the  fore  ones,  are  practically  of 
no  service.  The  spine  is  furnished  with  specially  strong 

191 


192 


FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  SEA 


muscles,   by  means  of  which  the  body  is  contracted  and 
thrown  forward  by  a  succession  of  ungainly  jerks. 

Naturalists  have  arranged  the 
Seals  in  various  technical  divi- 
sions. Traders  adopt  a  simpler 
classification,  dividing  the  diverse 
varieties  into  Hair  Seals,  Fur  Seals, 
and  the  Walrus,  the  first-named 
being  of  service  for  their  hides 
and  oil,  the  second  supplying  skins 
from  which  are  made  the  '  sealskin' 
garments  that  are  so  highly  prized. 
To  economise  space  and  the  reader's 
patience  only  a  few  of  the  more 
notable  typical  examples  will  be 
offered  for  consideration. 

Scientifically  the  Seals  may  be 
roughly  divided  into  the  Phocidae, 
or  true  Seals ;  the  Otariidae,  or 
Eared  Seals ;  and  the  Trichechidae, 
or  Walrus,  of  which  only  one 
species  is  in  existence.  These 
groups  may  be  easily  distinguished. 
The  Phocidae  have  no  external  ears ; 
the  Otariidae  have  small  pointed 
ears ;  and  the  Walrus  has  two 
enormous  tusks  projecting  from  the 
upper  jaw. 

One  peculiarity  in  all  the  Seals  is 
worthy  of  notice.  The  nostrils  are 
surrounded  by  a  muscle,  called  a 
sphincter,  i.e.,  a  constrictor,  by 
which  the  nostrils  are  kept  closed 
until  required,  when  they  can  be 
opened  while  the  creature  breathes, 
closing  again  automatically,  without 
any  exertion  on  the  part  of  the 
animal.  The  object  of  this  structure  is  to  prevent  water 
passing  into  the  lungs  while  the  Seal  is  below  the  surface. 
When  we  come  to  the  Whales,  we  shall  find  that  the  same 


THE  COMMON  SEAL  193 

object  is  attained  by  means  of  a  self-acting  valve.  On 
land  the  respiration  of  the  seal  is  slow — two  minutes 
between  each  breath  ;  the  animal  can  remain  under  water 
for  twenty-five  minutes. 


FAMILY   PHOCID^E. 

COMMON  SEAL  (Phoca  vitulina}. 

Coloured  Plate  XII.  Fig.  3. 

Of  the  Earless,  or  True  Seals,  the  Common  Seal  is  an 
excellent  example.  It  has  an  exceedingly  wide  range  ;  it 
is  found  on  both  coasts  of  the  North  Atlantic,  from  Spain 
to  Spitzbergen  on  the  east,  from  Florida  to  Greenland  on 
the  West.  The  Mediterranean,  Black,  and  Baltic  Seas 
are  visited  ;  and  it  is  common  on  the  loneliest  shores  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  At  one  time  the  coast  of  Cornwall 
and  the  Isle  of  Wight  were  favourite  resorts  of  this  Seal,  but 
the  shy  creature  has  almost  forsaken  these  regions  for  many 
years.  Occasionally  small  herds  enter  our  river  mouths, 
and  not  far  from  the  Tay  Bridge  was  once  witnessed  a 
terrific  encounter  between  a  Seal  and  a  large  salmon.  For 
an  hour  the  huge  fish  made  gallant  efforts  to  escape  its  foe, 
but  eventually  the  Seal  caught  and  devoured  it  in  triumph. 
Only  a  few  years  ago  a  Seal  was  shot  in  the  Thames  at 
Richmond. 

The  Common  Seal  is  not  a  large  animal,  its  length  not 
exceeding  five  feet.  Its  rather  handsome  skin  is  chiefly 
yellowish-grey  above,  with  patches  and  spots  of  brown 
or  brownish-black ;  the  under  surface  of  the  body  is  much 
lighter,  silvery  grey  or  almost  white.  There  is  no  under  fur, 
and  in  consequence  the  skin,  though  useful,  is  of  no  special 
value. 

Upon  the  British  coasts  the  Seal  is  not  found  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  make  it  of  commercial  importance,  chiefly 
giving  rise  to  the  cruel  and  fruitless  sport  of  Seal-shooting. 
In  other  regions,  Newfoundland  for  example,  the  animal  is 
hunted  for  the  sake  of  its  oil  and  hide. 

It  is   a  most   intelligent   and   affectionate  animal,  being 


194  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  SEA 

easily  tamed,  and  becoming  very  fond  of  a  kind  master. 
There  are  several  instances  known  where  the  Seal  became 
so  much  attached  to  the  fishermen  that  it  spent  the  greater 
part  of  its  time  on  the  shore,  and  even  in  the  house,  only 
going  into  the  sea  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  food.  It 
would  accompany  the  boat  and  return  with  the  fishermen 
after  the  voyage. 

A  Seal  that  was  captured  in  Clew  Bay  showed  tameness 
to  a  remarkable  degree  for  a  period  of  four  years.     Three 


HIND  FLIPPERS  OF  THE  SEAL. 
A.  Open.        B.  Closed. 

times  it  was  taken  out  to  sea  and  set  free,  but  upon  each 
occasion  it  returned  to  its  foster  home.  To  test  the  Seal 
still  further,  it  was  blinded  and  again  set  in  the  ocean  many 
miles  from  Clew  Bay.  At  the  end  of  eight  days  it  again 
waddled  ashore,  as  if  to  prove  that  the  brute  beast  was 
in  some  respects,  at  least,  superior  to  the  inhuman  beings, 
who  had  so  cruelly  used  it  in  the  satisfaction  of  a  brutal 
curiosity. 

Of  other  species  of  the  genus  Phoca  may  be  mentioned 


VARIOUS  SEALS  195 

the  Grey  Seal  (Halichcerus  grypus)  of  the  North  Atlantic, 
which  is  well  known  on  the  North  British  coasts.  It  is 
a  larger  animal  than  the  last  named,  measuring  as  much 
as  eight  feet  in  length  and  attaining  a  weight  of  four 
hundred  pounds.  It  is  less  gregarious  than  many  of  its 
cousins,  usually  being  met  with  only  in  pairs. 

The  Bladder  Nose,  or  Crested  Seal  (Cystophora  cristata), 
is  the  largest,  fiercest,  and  most  dangerous  of  the  northern 
Seals.  In  harpooning  it,  the  Eskimo  often  finds  the 
animal  turn  upon  him  to  upset  the  frail  kayak  in  which 
he  is  seated.  Probably  the  hardy  Northman  considers  the 
capture  well  worth  th/  risk  entailed,  for  two  hundred 
pounds  of  flesh  and  over  a  hundred  pounds  of  blubber 
form  no  mean  addition  to  a  scanty  larder.  The  crest 
of  the  animal  is  neither  a  kind  of  armour  plate  to  pro- 
tect it  against  wounds,  nor  a  bladder  to  give  increased 
buoyancy,  as  was  once  supposed ;  it  is  nothing  but  an 
enlargement  of  the  nasal  passages. 

The  Greenland  Seal  (Phoca  grcenlandica)  ranges  along 
almost  the  whole  of  the  Arctic  coasts.  It  is  an  animal 
that  has  given  rise  to  much  confusion.  Not  only  do 
the  males  and  females  differ  very  considerably  in  size 
and  colouring,  but  as  they  grow  to  maturity  they  undergo 
marked  changes  that  have  gained  for  the  same  species 
a  great  variety  of  names,  each  really  applicable  to  the  Seal 
only  at  some  particular  period  in  its  existence,  e.g.,  Ice 
Seal,  Saddle  Back,  White  Coat,  Blue  Side,  and  Harp 
Seal. 

The  animal  is  invaluable  to  the  Eskimos,  and  at  one 
time  in  Danish  Greenland  an  annual  catch  of  nearly  forty 
thousand  was  nothing  uncommon.  From  the  crow's- 
nest  of  a  British  sealing  vessel  could  sometimes  be  seen 
half  a  million  seals,  'literally  covering  the  frozen  waste 
as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  with  the  aid  of  a  telescope.' 
A  party  from  one  vessel  has  caught  as  many  as  twelve 
thousand  Seals  in  a  day.  Fortunately  for  the  species, 
however,  Hair-sealing  for  various  reasons  has  ceased 
to  be  so  profitable  as  was  once  the  case,  and  in  all  proba- 
bility the  Seal  is  as  numerous  as  ever  it  was  when  the 
annual  catch  ran  into  hundreds  of  thousands. 


196  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  SEA 

SEA  LEOPAED  (Ogmorhinus  leptonyx). 
Coloured  Plate  XII.  Fig.  2. 

The  Sea  Leopard  is  a  Southern  Hair-Seal  that  is  found 
on  some  of  the  Australasian  coasts  ;  on  various  islands, 
such  as  the  Falkland,  Auckland,  and  Lord  Howe's  ;  and 
on  the  ice  pack  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  The  Leopard 
Seal  is  sometimes  erroneously  stated  to  be  an  entirely 
different  species  in  the  North  Pacific. 

Very  little  is  known  of  the  Sea  Leopard,  and  as  sealing 
in  the  far  South  is  practically  a  dead  industry,  it  is  difficult 
to  glean  accurate  facts  concerning  this  cat-like  looking 
marine  mammal.  In  only  few  museums  are  male  and 
female  stuffed  specimens,  and  occasionally  isolated  captures 
have  taken  place  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  The  male 
Sea  Leopard  attains  a  length  of  at  least  twelve  feet.  Its 
skin  is  a  glossy  silvery  grey,  with  darker  shadings  merging 
into  patches  of  yellowish-white. 

SEA  ELEPHANT  (Macrorhinus  proboscided). 
Plate  XVIII. 

The  Sea  Elephant,  or  Elephant  Seal,  is  the  largest  of  the 
marine  Mammalia,  excepting  only  the  larger  whales,  for 
it  grows  to  a  length  of  twenty  to  thirty  feet.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  just  a  big  black  Seal,  with  the  skin  of  the  nose  pro- 
longed to  hang  limply  before  the  mouth  for  about 
a  foot,  which  the  animal  inflates  when  it  is  excited  or 
enraged. 

This  unwieldy  creature  is  common  to  both  hemispheres, 
but  it  has  been  hunted  with  such  ardour  that  very  few  exist 
north  of  the  Equator.  In  the  southern  seas  it  forms 
practically  the  only  population  on  many  a  series  of  barren 
rocks,  although  even  there  it  was  at  one  time  hunted  by 
whalers  until  it  was  almost  a  rarity.  Once  it  abounded 
in  immense  numbers  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  especially  in 
Kerguelen's  Land  and  neighbouring  islands.  In  the  chase 
of  the  Sea  Elephant  sealers  ran  terrible  risks,  endured 


PLATE  XVI 1 1. 


SEAL    ROOKERY    AND    SEA    ELEPHANT. 


THE  SEA  ELEPHANT  197 

incredible  hardships,  and  their  reward  after  a  successful 
voyage  worked  out  at  something  like  ten  shillings  per  week. 
Only  the  hide  and  blubber  were  sought,  the  animal  having 
no  fur.  A  bull  Sea  Elephant  will  furnish  eight  to  ten 
barrels  of  oil ;  a  cow  rarely  more  than  six  barrels. 

'  My  own  recollection  of  this  miserable  business  is  a  brief 
one/  says  Frank  T.  Bullen,  '  but  quite  lengthy  enough 
to  make  me  thankful  that  I  shall  never  repeat  the  experi- 
ence/ He  proceeds  to  relate  particulars  of  a  visit  to 
Auckland  and  Campbell  Islands,  where,  provisions  and 
materials  for  building  huts  having  been  landed,  the  ship 
sailed  away ;  it  was  no  place  for  a  vessel  to  linger  at 
anchor.  Better  by  far  face  the  utmost  fury  of  the  open  sea. 

'We  plunged  into  work  of  the  hardest  in  order  to  get 
things  a  bit  shipshape  ;  but  before  we  had  been  toiling  an 
hour  we  were  all  suddenly  startled  stiff  by  a  most  tremendous 
roaring,  as  of  a  troop  of  lions  newly  landed.  Coming 
across  a  ridge  of  rock  into  view  of  a  little  exposed  bay, 
we  saw  at  least  a  hundred  of  these  huge  Seals  emerging 
from  the  broken  water  and  lumbering1  shorewards. 

'  We  had  been  told  that  all  we  had  to  do  was  to  smite 
them  fiercely  on  the  nose,  and  they  would  fall  an  inert 
mass  at  our  feet,  when  we  were  to  cut  their  throats 
immediately.  But  somehow  a  sight  of  them  did  not  seem 
to  inspire  us  with  much  confidence  in  our  ability  to  carry 
out  these  simple  orders  to  the  letter.' 

Presently,  when  the  last  of  the  mighty  family  had 
heaved  his  huge  bulk  out  of  the  surf  and  waddled  after  the 
rest  inland,  the  sealers,  armed  only  with  clubs  and  knives, 
got  between  the  animals  and  the  water-line.  Their  loud 
yells  caused  the  creatures  to  come  lumbering  back  to  the 
sea.  '  Our  chief  faced  the  leader  and  smote  him  so  felly 
that  the  vast  mass  of  the  body  collapsed  like  a  burst 
bladder  and  spread  itself  upon  the  ground.  Immediately 
we  were  all  doing  likewise,  yelling  like  demons  at  the  same 
time.' 

But  the  hunters  were  not  to  come  off  scatheless.  One 
man  missed  his  blow  and  his  footing  at  the  same  time,  and 
putting  his  left  arm  out  to  save  himself  from  falling,  thrust 
it  into  the  monster's  gaping  jaws.  '  Now  the  Sea  Elephant 


198  FLESH-EATERS   OF  THE   SEA 

can  crack  pebbles  as  large  as  goose  eggs  like  nuts,  and  does 
do  so,  apparently  for  sport,  so  that  when  we  drew  Sandy 
from  underneath  his  fallen  foe,  and  prising  open  the  jaw, 
released  his  arm,  it  looked  more  like  some  shreds  of  red  rag 
than  anything  else.' 

'  The  upshot  of  the  raid  was  twenty-one  elephants  killed. 
We  were  a  study  in  ruffianism — " gaumed"  all  over  with 
blood  and  grease,  stumbling  over  the  smallest  stone  for 
very  weariness,  yet  compelled  to  toil  on  with  only  a  few 
minutes'  rest  at  long  intervals  all  through  the  night  at  the 
unfamiliar  work  of  skinning  those  great  beasts  and  securing 
the  masses  of  fat-laden  hide.' 

SEA  LION  (Otaria  stelleri). 
Coloured  Plate  XII.  Fig.  i. 

The  seals  already  described  either  possess  no  external  ears 
or  else  they  are  very  small  ;  in  the  genus  Otaria,  of  which 
the  Sea  Lion  is  the  largest,  they  may  be  short,  but,  never- 
theless, are  very  distinct.  There  are  differences  in  the  skull 
and  teeth.  All  the  seal  tribe  possess  strong  canine  teeth, 
but  the  Sea  Lion  has  six  molars  instead  of  four,  as  in  the 
common  seal.  In  addition,  the  eared  seals  make  progress 
on  land  or  ice  with  far  more  facility  than  the  true  seals. 
The  hind  flippers  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  body, 
and  these  the  creature  gathers  up  underneath  it,  raises  itself 
on  the  fore  limbs,  and  then  gives  a  push.  The  movement 
is  extremely  cumbersome,  but  the  animal  will  contrive  to 
mount  a  slope  that  a  man  could  not  compass  without  much 
exertion  ;  and  the  Sea  Lion  is  often  found  quite  four  miles 
from  the  edge  of  the  water. 

The  home  of  Steller's  Sea  Lion  is  the  Bering  Sea,  and 
as  far  South  as  the  Kurile  Islands  on  the  one  side  of  the 
North  Pacific  and  California  on  the  other.  In  the  latter 
case  a  rookery  of  Sea  Lions  is  strictly  preserved  by  the 
American  Government,  or  probably  long  ere  this  the  animal 
would  have  been  exterminated  in  those  waters,  as  it  has  been 
in  many  other  regions  after  a  century  and  a  half  of  constant 
persecution. 

The  male  Sea  Lion,  of  eleven  or  twelve  feet  in  length  and 


LIOIST  199 

a  thousand  pounds  in  weight,  is  yellowish-brown  in  colour 
with  shaded  darker  patches.  There  is  a  distinct  mane  upon 
the  neck,  which,  with  its  upright  posture,  combines  to  give 
the  creature  its  supposed  leonine  appearance.  The  males 
are  fierce  in  aspect,  and  if  hard  pressed  will  turn  and  show 
fight.  Old  animals  bellow  like  bulls  ;Jhe  younger  ones 
bleat  like  sheep.  They  bolt  their  fish  without  mastication. 
The  female  is  only  about  half  the  dimensions  of  the  male, 
and  is  considerably  lighter  in  colour.  The  animal  is  one 
of  the  hair  seals,  useful  only  for  its  hide,  flesh,  and  fat.  To 
the  Aleutian  islander  it  is  as  useful  as  is  the  walrus  to  the 
Eskimo,  and  there  is  scarcely  any  part  of  the  body  that  is 


SKELETON  OF   THE  SEA   LION   (WALKING  ATTITUDE). 

not  of  service.  At  one  time  the  catch  was  forty  thousand 
per  annum.  The  Sea  Lion  frequents  the  same  breeding- 
grounds  as  the  fur  seals,  though  the  animals  keep  strictly 
apart ;  and  an  account  of  a  fur  seal  rookery  will,  in  its 
main  features,  apply  equally  well  to  the  habits  of  the 
larger  animal. 

The  Patagonian  Sea  Lion  (Otaria  jubata)  formerly  existed 
in  immense  numbers.  It  is  chiefly  interesting  on  account 
of  its  being  one  of  this  species  that  was  first  brought  to 
England.  Probably  this  animal  is  more  energetic  than  its 
northern  cousin,  for  it  often  hunts  in  packs,  catching  not 
only  fishes  and  squids,  but  also  preying  upon  the  slow- 
going  penguin. 


200  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  SEA 

SEA  BEAR  (Otaria  ursina}. 
Coloured  Plate  XII.  Fig.  4. 

There  are  four  or  five  Southern  fur  seals  that  have  been 
almost  wiped  out  of  existence  by  continual  hunting ;  but 
the  Sea  Bear,  or  Northern  Fur  Seal,  still  resorts  in  immense 
herds  to  the  islands  in  the  Bering  Sea,  though  it  is  by  no 
means  so  abundant  as  was  once  the  case. 

A  full-grown  Sea  Bear  is  six  or  seven  feet  long,  turning 
the  scale  at  perhaps  six  hundred  pounds  ;  the  female  is 
much  smaller,  seldom  reaching  five  feet  in  length,  and 
weighing  as  little  as  eighty  pounds.  The  male  generally 
is  of  a  greyish  tint  on  the  shoulders,  the  rest  of  the  body 
varying  from  reddish-grey  to  almost  pure  black  ;  the  under 
parts  are  of  a  reddish-brown  tint ;  the  female  is  lighter,  a 
mixture  of  grey  and  brown. 

The  coat  of  the  Sea  Bear  is  the  famous  ' sealskin'  fur. 
When  the  skin  is  first  taken  from  the  animal  it  gives  no 
promise  of  the  soft  beauty  which  makes  it  so  valuable,  being 
apparently  coarse  and  rough.  This  appearance  is  caused  by 
a  coating  of  long  and  coarse  hairs,  which  penetrate  through 

the  thick  soft  fur  which  is 
next  the  skin.  These  hairs 
are  removed  in  a  very 
ingenious  manner.  Being 
much  longer  than  the  hairs 
which  constitute  the  fur, 
their  roots  penetrate  the 
skin  much  more  deeply. 

VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  THE  SKIN  OF  In    order    to     remOVe    them, 

11111    r  L  Iv    o£sA.L* 

the   dresser   lays   the   skin, 

The  coarser  hairs  (/;)  penetrate  quite  through  ...        . .          ..  , 

the  skin  (s).  with    the   fur    downwards, 

on  a  table.     With  a  long- 

bladed  knife,  as  sharp  as  a  razor,  he  shaves  off  the  skin, 
cutting  it  just  deep  enough  to  sever  the  roots  of  the  bristles, 
without  touching  those  of  the  inner  fur.  The  bristles  are 
then  easily  removed,  leaving  the  fur  untouched. 

The  gathering  together  of  the  seals  in  the  breeding 
season  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  sights  in  the  world 


THE  NORTHERN   FUR  SEAL  201 

(Plate  XVIII.).  At  the  Pribyloff  Islands  and  other  such 
lonely  spots  in  the  North  Pacific  the  male  seals  begin 
to  arrive  early  in  May.  Just  as  in  a  gold  rush  the  miner 
stakes  out  his  location,  so  the  seal  allots  to  himself  on  the 
rocky  shore  a  space  of  about  ten  feet  square  as  tne  site  for 
his  housekeeping.  Normally  the  seal  is  a  soft-eyed,  amiable 
creature,  except  in  his  attitude  towards  the  fish  upon  which 
he  feeds  ;  but  now  he  becomes  a  fierce  beast  with  bristling 
moustache,  glaring  eyes,  and  teeth  ever  bared  towards  any 
of  his  companions.  No  sooner  has  he  entered  into  posses- 
sion of  his  freehold  site  than  he  becomes  engaged  in  a  series 
of  terrible  combats  with  new-comers  to  retain  it. 

About  the  beginning  of  June  the  female  seals  arrive,  and 
then  the  scene  simply  defies  description.  Each  bull  is  bent 
upon  stocking  his  allotment  with  partners,  and  as  a  female 
comes  swimming  in  to  shore  she  is  pounced  upon  by  a  mob 
of  roaring,  frenzied  males.  She  is  bitten,  scratched,  banged 
down  upon  the  rocks,  and  sometimes  literally  torn  limb 
from  limb  ;  but  usually  she  escapes  so  severe  a  fate  and  is 
seized  by  the  neck  by  a  victorious  bull,  who  dumps  her 
down  in  his  reservation.  But  when  he  has  secured  from  a 
dozen  to  fifteen  wives  the  bull  has  to  battle  just  as  strenu- 
ously to  keep  them.  Often  a  discontented  spouse  will 
endeavour  to  escape  to  a  neighbouring  family,  and  not 
infrequently,  unhappily,  a  bigger  and  stronger  bull  will 
annex  the  whole  harem,  leaving  its  owner  lamenting  until 
he  can  despoil  of  his  wives  another  bull  weaker  than  himself. 

When  the  baby  seals  arrive,  about  the  end  of  the  month, 
the  mothers  pay  them  but  scant  attention,  beyond  affording 
them  plentiful  supplies  of  rich  milk,  upon  which  the  young 
pups  make  amazing  progress.  The  bulls  appear  not  to  be 
even  faintly  interested  in  nursery  matters.  Strangely  enough 
the  young  seal  is  not  a  born  swimmer  ;  it  is  necessary  for 
its  mother  to  give  it  lessons  in  the  art  of  natation.  The  pup 
proves  to  be  an  apt  learner,  and  very  shortly  thousands  of 
young  animals  are  gambolling  in  the  water  of  their  own 
accord. 

One  feature  of  the  seal's  life  appears  to  be  absolutely 
inexplicable.  For  ten  months  of  the  year  a  bull  requires 
a  hundredweight  of  fish  a  day,  and  it  is  no  fault  of  his  if  the 


202  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  SEA 

supply  falls  short  of  his  necessities.  But  for  two  months 
at  the  '  rookery '  he  '  fights,  makes  love,  never  sleeps,  never 
drinks,  and  never  eats.'  There  are  many  animals  that 
fast  for  longer  periods,  but  it  is  always  in  a  season  when 
their  natural  forces  are  torpid  ;  but  the  seals  fast  '  through- 
out the  most  strenuous  period  each  year  of  their  intensely 
strenuous  life.'  In  any  case  food  is  scarce  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  a  rookery,  for  the  appearance  of  the  seals  is 
the  signal  for  the  fish  to  remove  themselves  elsewhere. 

What  the  pups  live  upon  after  the  time  they  are  weaned 
until  the  whole  colony  goes  to  sea  again  is  equally  mys- 
terious ;  for  if  one  is  killed  its  stomach  will  be  found  to 
contain  only  stones. 

By  the  end  of  October  the  breeding  location  is  deserted  ; 
the  thousands  of  its  late  tenants  are  scattering  themselves 
over  the  free  ocean.  No  one  can  accurately  gauge  the 
extent  of  their  wanderings  during  the  eight  months  which 
elapse  before  they  return  to  the  earnest  life  of  the  rookery. 
The  killer  whale  probably  knows  something  about  it,  for  one 
of  these  ocean  wolves,  when  captured  off  the  coast  of  Cali- 
fornia, had  no  less  than  fourteen  fairly  large  seals  in  its 
capacious  maw.  Sharks  take  a  bite  out  of  the  sleeping  seal 
as  it  lies  afloat  upon  the  curling  waves,  and  the  Polar  bear 
on  the  icefloes  stealthily  cuts  off  its  retreat  to  the  water. 

But  these  inroads  upon  the  numbers  of  the  seal  family 
count  as  nothing  compared  to  the  fierce  toll  which  man 
takes.  Even  within  recent  years  a  hundred  thousand  Fur 
Seals  have  been  taken  in  one  season  in  the  Pribyloff 
Islands  alone.  '  It  is  a  sordid,  horrible  business,  which 
cannot  be  written  about  nicely.'  In  their  greed  for  gain 
the  sealers  are  charged  with  skinning  their  victims  while 
they  are  but  stunned,  and  one  writer  (Burn-Murdoch)  tells 
of  the  newly  flayed  seal  lifting  itself  redly  towards  heaven, 
in  the  glowing  sunshine,  as  if  asking  its  Maker  why  this 
thing  should  be. 

The  Northern  Fur  Seal  was  likely  to  be  exterminated 
until  Government  intervention  insisted  upon  giving  the 
seal  a  close  time,  protecting  the  immature  animal,  and 
especially  preventing  the  capture  of  the  creatures  when 
on  their  way  to  the  breeding  grounds.  Even  though  the 


Plate   XE. 


1.  Sea  Lion 


5.  Walrus 


THE   WALRUS  203 

regulations  be  constantly  broken  by  lawless  men  who  risk 
the  remote  chances  of  detection,  the  seal  harvest  in  any 
year  is  not  equal  to  what  it  was  when  indiscriminate 
slaughter  was  general ;  but  moderate  seasons  in  perpetuity 
will  stand  for  wealth  incalculable,  instead  of  a  few  flush 
seasons  that  would  have  spelt  extinction  for  one  of  the 
most  wonderful,  amiable,  and  intelligent  of  God's  creatures, 
whether  on  land  or  in  the  sea. 


WALRUS     (Trichechus  rosmdrus). 
Coloured  Plate  XII.  Fig.  5. 

Standing  alone,  a  real  monster  of  the  deep,  the  Walrus, 
Morse,  or  Sea  Horse  is  the  most  extraordinary  member  of 
a  remarkable  family.  The  word  '  Walrus'  is  of  Scandinavian 
origin,  and  literally  signifies  'Whale  Horse' ;  though  why,  in 
naming  one  of  the  most  ungainly  of  the  brute  creation,  it 
was  thought  necessary  to  libel  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of 
our  animals,  the  horse,  is  difficult  to  comprehend. 

'  None  can  compete  with  the  Walrus  for  clumsiness.  He 
has  a  gigantic  body — in  the  fullest  grown  adult  about  a  ton 
in  weight — and  about  as  unsymmetrical  as  a  leathern  bag  of 
oil.  It  is  covered  with  a  tough,  gnarled  hide,  scantily 
clothed  with  coarse  brown  hair,  very  patchy — in  fact,  not  at 
all  unlike  one  of  those  old  hair-trunks  we  used  to  see  occa- 
sionally. The  fore  flippers  are  very  short,  and  the  hand-like 
members  are  planted  flat  at  almost  right  angles  to  the  body, 
while  the  hind  flippers  have  no  legs  to  them,  being  appar- 
ently just  an  ornamental  appendage  to  the  body  in  lieu  of  a 
tail.  Consequently,  he  who  can  watch  the  progress  of  a 
Walrus  over  land  or  ice  and  not  laugh  must  be  quite  devoid 
of  humour,  for  it  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  droll-looking 
methods  of  progression  conceivable.' 

The  Walrus  is  practically  restricted  to  the  Arctic  Circle, 
though  two  or  three  centuries  ago  it  abounded  off  Norway, 
and  one  was  seen  as  far  South  as  the  Orkney  Islands  in  1857. 

The  outstanding  singularity  of  the  immense  animal,  which 
often  measures  eighteen  or  twenty  feet  in  length  and  ten  or 
twelve  in  circumference  round  the  chest,  consists  in  the  con- 


204 


FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  SEA 


struction  of  the  skull.  The  lower  jaw  lacks  both  incisor  and 
canine  teeth,  and  is  compressed  laterally  to  fit  in  between 
two  enormous  canine  teeth,  or  tusks,  which  are  set  in  the 
upper  jaw,  and  are  inclined  downwards  with  a  gentle  curve. 
The  length  of  these  tusks  is  sometimes  a  couple  of  feet,  with 
a  girth  of  seven  inches  at  the  base,  and  each  weighing 
upwards  of  ten  pounds.  The  primary  object  of  the  ivory 
tusks  is  to  act  as  ice-hooks,  enabling  the  animal  to  haul 
itself  out  of  the  water  on  to  the  ice.  They  are  also  used 
in  raking  out  of  the  sand  and  mud  the  cockles,  mussels, 
worms,  and  other  shore-frequenting  creatures  on  which 
the  animal  feeds.  It  does  not  disdain  the  offal  of  a 

dead  whale,  or  indeed  any 
animal  food  that  calls  for  no 
chase  in  getting  it. 

The  nostrils  of  the  Walrus, 
instead  of  terminating  in  a 
snout,  are  situated  far  above 
the  mouth,  on  what  appears 
to  be  the  middle  of  the  face. 
The  ears  are  merely  two  small 
orifices ;  the  neck  is  short ; 
the  lips  are  thick.  Almost  all 
the  hair-producing  power  of 
SKULL  AND  DENTITION  OF  WALRUS,  the  animal  seems  to  be  con- 
centrated in  the  upper  lips, 
which  are  thickly  covered  with 
enormously  developed  bristles, 

sharply  pointed,  and  so  large  as  to  remind  the  spectator 
of  the  quills  of  the  porcupine.  The  generic  name,  Trichechus, 
is  formed  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  a  hair  or  bristle. 

Notwithstanding  its  intensely  ferocious  appearance,  the 
Walrus  is  a  markedly  inoffensive  creature,  except  during  the 
breeding  season,  when  the  males  will  fight  desperately  with 
each  other  for  the  locality  which  they  select  for  their 
nurseries,  and  the  result  is  that  there  is  not  an  old  male  to 
be  found  that  is  not  covered  with  scars  from  the  tusks 
of  his  rivals. 

The  Walrus  is  a  very  sociable  creature,  loving  to  herd  in 
hundreds.  Captain  Cook  thus  describes  his  meeting  with 


A.  Skull  of  adult  animal. 

B.  Palate  and  dentition  of  young. 

C.  Lower  jaw  and  dentition  of  young. 


THE  WALRUS  205 

the  animal  off  the  northern  coast  of  America  :  '  They  lie  in 
herds  of  many  hundreds  upon  the  ice,  huddling  over  one 
another  like  swine,  and  roar  and  bray  so  very  loud  that  in 
the  night  or  foggy  weather  they  gave  us  notice  of  the 
vicinity  of  the  ice  before  we  could  see  it.  We  never  found 
the  whole  herd  asleep,  some  being  always  on  the  watch. 
They  were  seldom  in  a  hurry  to  get  away  till  after  they  had 
been  fired  at ;  they  would  then  tumble  over  one  another 
into  the  sea  in  the  utmost  confusion.  .  .  .  The  dam,  when 
in  the  water,  holds  the  young  one  between  her  fore  arms/ 

No  animal,  perhaps,  takes  its  parental  responsibilities 
more  seriously  than  the  Walrus,  which  will  undergo  much 
privation  for  the  sake  of  its  young.  The  great  tusks  which 
are  so  vitally  necessary  to  the  existence  of  the  animal,  only 
attain  a  length  of  one  or  two  inches  by  the  time  the  young 
one  is  two  years  old.  When  a  young  male,  in  particular,  is 
nearly  as  big  as  his  mother,  he  will  still  take  milk  from  the 
patient  dam,  who  will  also  grub  up  succulent  morsels  to 
satisfy  the  appetite  of  her  ponderous  offspring. 

In  one  respect  at  least  the  Walrus  is  fortunate — it  may  be 
considered  to  have  no  serious  enemy  among  the  animal 
inhabitants  of  the  chilly  regions  where  it  dwells.  The 
Polar  Bear,  gaunt  and  ravenous,  will  not  enter  joyfully  into 
a  conflict  with  a  Walrus,  for  it  knows  that  the  ivory  tusks 
are  capable  of  being  put  to  sterner  use  than  digging  in  the 
mud  for  shellfish,  &c.  It  is  difficult,  too,  for  even  the  bear's 
terrible  claws  to  make  much  impression  on  the  thick  and 
leathery  hide. 

The  Walrus,  however,  is  no  match  for  the  Polar  Bear  in 
cunning,  and  often  it  is  roused  out  of  its  sun-bath  on  the 
edge  of  the  ice  by  the  onslaught  of  the  foe,  which  has 
stealthily  crept  up  to  take  the  huge  creature  by  surprise. 
If  the  bear  can  leap  on  to  the  shoulders  of  the  Walrus, 
while  it  is  yet  some  distance  from  the  water,  the  result  is, 
more  or  less,  a  foregone  conclusion — no  skull  could  with- 
stand the  terrible  blows  which  the  bear  deals  it.  But  if  the 
Walrus  can  slip  into  the  water  before  it  is  incapacitated,  it 
has  more  than  a  sporting  chance  of  effecting  its  escape. 
There  are  limits  to  the  diving  powers  of  the  bear,  who 
speedily  comes  to  the  surface,  sadly  disappointed,  and  in  a 


2o6  FLESH-EATERS  OF  THE  SEA 

temper  that  bodes  ill  for  the  next  prospective  prey  that  is 
encountered. 

To  the  Eskimo  tribes,  the  Walrus  is  the  first  necessity  of 
life.  From  the  skin  are  made  the  coverings  of  the  kayaks, 
or  canoes,  in  which  the  Eskimo  hunts  the  seal  and  the 
Walrus.  The  bones  furnish  him  with  the  runners  for  his 
sledges  and  the  heads  of  his  weapons,  while  the  tusks  form 
the  points  of  his  spears  and  harpoons,  and  are  also  cut  into 
fish-hooks,  the  weights  of  bird-slings,  and  similar  objects. 
The  intestines  are  split,  and  twisted  into  twine  of  great 
strength,  from  which  are  made  the  nets  and  fishing-lines  on 
which  the  livelihood  of  the  native  largely  depends.  The 
flesh  supplies  him  with  ample  stores  of  food,  while  the 
abundant  fat  is  used  as  fuel  in  the  stone  lamp,  without 
which  the  Eskimo  could  not  possibly  live. 

It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  man  has  wrought  terrible  havoc 
among  the  Walrus  tribe.  King  Alfred  records  how  Othere 
and  his  men  made  a  fine  battue  of  these  marine  mammals  on 
the  coast  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  it  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  the  Greenlanders  paid  their  contribution  to  the  cost 
of  the  Crusades  in  Walrus  tusks.  In  later  times  one  hears 
of  the  voyagers  to  Spitzbergen  slaying  nine  hundred 
Walruses  in  a  few  hours.  Mr.  Lyddeker  says  that  in  the 
ten  years  1870-80,  Russian  whalers  alone  obtained  400,000 
pounds  of  ivory  and  2,000,000  gallons  of  Walrus  oil.  These 
figures  point  to  the  capture  of  at  least  a  hundred  thousand 
Walruses.  The  diminution  in  their  numbers  has  reduced 
Walrus-hunting  to  rather  a  low  ebb,  but  so  long  as  there 
are  sufficient  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  Eskimo  all  may  be 
accounted  well. 


Chapter  VIII 

ORDER    V.— RODENTIA    (GNAWING 
ANIMALS) 

SUB-ORDER  I.— SIMPLE-TOOTHED 

RODENTS 

SUB-ORDER   2.— DOUBLE-TOOTHED 
RODENTS 


General  description  of  the  Rodentia— Table  of 
Sub-orders — Common  Squirrel — Grey  Squirrel 

—  Taguan      Flying      Squirrel  —  Polatouche  — 
Assapan  —  Anomalure  —  Chipmunk  —  Marmot 

—  Wood-chuck  —  Prairie       Dog  —  Beaver  — 
Mouse-like     Rodents — House     Mouse — Field 
Mouse — Harvest  Mouse  —  Dormouse  —  Black 
Rat— Brown  Rat — Field  Vole — Water  Vole- 
Musquash  —  Hamster  —  Lemming  —  Jerboa  — 
Cape    Jumping    Hare — Porcupine — Chinchilla 
— Viscacha — Agouti — Guinea  Pig — Capybara — 
Hare— Rabbit— Pika. 


PLATE  XIX. 


AMERICAN    GREY   SQUIRRELS. 

(See  page  213) 


(Photo  IF.  S.  Bt-iridge,  F.Z.S.) 


PLATE  XX. 


i.     FLYING    SQUIRRELS. 

(See  pai*e  214) 


2.     WATER    VOLE. 

tS«  page  232) 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Order    V. — Rodcntia 
(Gnawing  Animals) 

THE  Rodents  are  small  or  moderately  sized  animals, 
many  of  which  in  their  external  appearance  strongly 
resemble  some  of  the  Insectivora.  They  are  more  widely 
distributed  than  any  other  order  of  the  Mammalia ;  except 
in  the  extreme  Polar  regions  they  are  found  everywhere, 
although  Australia,  especially  considering  its  size,  is  poorly 
represented.  There  are  quite  a  thousand  species,  some  of 
which  are  marked  by  their  countless  myriads  of  individuals  ; 
and  in  this  respect  it  is  fortunate  for  mankind  that  most  of 
them  are  '  Wee,  sleekit,  cowerin',  tim'rous  beasties.'  Never- 
theless they  have  very  diverse  habits.  They  are  among  the 
swiftest  of  the  Mammalia,  they  are  diggers  and  delvers  in 
the  earth,  they  are  flying  gymnasts,  they  are  expert  divers, 
or  they  are  agile  leapers  whose  movements  the  eye  can 
scarcely  follow. 

The  word  ' Rodent'  literally  means  a  gnawer,  and  is  given 
to  the  animals  on  account  of  the  structure  of  their  teeth. 
Of  grinders  they  are  usually  furnished  with  at  least  three 
above  and  below  on  each  side.  Canine  teeth  are  altogether 
absent.  They  all  possess  two  incisors  in  each  jaw,  which 
occupy  more  than  half  the  space ;  in  a  very  few  species 
there  is  a  pair  of  small  or  rudimentary  incisors  in  the  upper 
jaw.  The  number  of  grinders  may  differ,  but  the  incisors 
are  always  widely  separated  from  them.  Their  outer 
surface  is  faced  with  enamel,  which  wears  more  slowly  than 
the  softer  inner  side  of  the  tooth,  so  as  always  to  present  a 

15  209 


2io  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

sharp  edge  like  that  of  a  chisel,  whose  cutting  edge  consists 
of  a  plate  of  hard  steel  backed  by  softer  iron. 

The  incisors,  set  exactly  opposite  each  other,  need 
continual  use  to  preserve  their  cutting  edge.  As  fast  as 
the  teeth  are  worn  down  fresh  material  is  supplied  from 
the  hollowed  base.  The  growth  of  the  incisors  in  the 
Rodents  is  so  rapid  that  the  animals  must  continually  gnaw 
if  they  are  to  exist  in  comfort,  or  in  fact  to  exist  at  all,  for 
they  would  grow  to  such  a  size  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  open  and  close  the  mouth.  Hence,  when  a  Rodent  is 
not  employing  its  teeth  on  food,  it  apparently  engages  them 
in  the  wanton  destruction  of  some  hard  substance  altogether 

useless  for  food ;  or  failing 
that,  it  works  its  jaws  in- 
cessantly from  side  to  side, 
grinding  the  teeth  against 
each  other,  ever  seeking  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of 
overgrowth. 

The  illustration  of  the 
rabbit's  head  shows  what 
happens  when  the  animal 
breaks  an  upper  incisor  of 
the  right  side  and  a  lower 

HEAD  OF  A  RABBIT.  inCiSOF  °f    the    left    Side«       The 

Showing  abnormal  growth  of  incisor  teeth.       Unbroken       teeth      grOW       UI1- 

checked,  following  the  curve 

of  their  sockets,  and  assuming  the  remarkable  forms  which 
are  there  figured. 

The  Rodentia  are  for  the  most  part  vegetable  feeders ; 
some  are  really  omnivorous ;  and  the  majority  of  them 
are  particularly  destructive  to  grain,  whether  in  the  crop 
or  garner.  The  fur  of  some  of  the  species  is  of  considerable 
commercial  importance  ;  and  there  are  few  of  them  whose 
flesh  is  not  fit  for  food,  though  in  several  cases  its  odour 
leaves  something  to  be  desired.  In  England  hares  and 
rabbits  are  the  only  Rodents  which  are  usually  eaten,  but 
mankind  is  as  omnivorous  as  any  of  the  beasts  of  the  field, 
and  in  one  region  certain  animal  food  is  accounted  a 
delicacy,  which  in  another  is  viewed  with  loathing. 


Plate 


7.  Golden  Agouti 


S.Syrian  Hyrax 


SQUIRREL-LIKE  RODENTS  211 

Owing  to  the  number  of  species  of  marked  similarity 
in  structure,  zoologists  have  not  always  agreed  concerning 
the  classification  of  the  Rodents,  but  it  is  generally  accept- 
able to  divide  them  into  two  Sub-orders  : — 

I.  Simple-toothed    Rodents  (Simplicidentata),    or    those 
species  which  never  possess  more  than  two  incisors  in  the 
upper  jaw. 

This  Sub-order  is  again  divided  into  three  sections  : — 

1.  Squirrel-like  Rodents  (Sciuromorpha). 

2.  Mouse-like  Rodents  (Myomorpha). 

3.  Porcupine-like  Rodents  (Hystricomorpha). 

II.  Double  -  toothed     Rodents     (Dupliddentata).     This 
Sub-order  contains   only   two   families,  of   which   that   of 
the  Hares  and  Rabbits  contains  four  times  as  many  species 
as  the  family  of  the  Pikas. 


Sub-Order  I.— SIMPLE-TOOTHED  RODENTS 

SQUIRREL-LIKE  RODENTS. 

FAMILY    SCIURID^E    (SQUIRRELS). 

BED  SQUIRREL  (Sciurus  vulgaris). 

Coloured  Plate  XIV.  Fig.  4. 

The  Squirrel,  light,  nimble,  and  graceful,  is  practically 
distributed  throughout  all  the  world  except  Australia, 
and  is  particularly  abundant  in  North  America.  With 
comparatively  few  excep- 
tions the  animal  is  a  tree- 
dweller,  for  which  its 
fore  feet,  with  finger-like 
toes  and  sharp  nails, 
specially  fit  it. 

The   Common   or    Red 

Squirrel     of     the     British  CLAWS  OF  THE  SQUIRREL. 

Isles     is    a    pretty     little 

animal   of  about   fifteen  inches  in  length  from  the  tip  of 
its   nose   to  the   end  of  its  tail.     It   is   clad  in  a  coat   of 


2i2  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

short,  silky,  russet-brown  fur  above  ;  below  it  is  princi- 
pally white.  The  species  extends  from  Norway  to  Japan 
and  from  Lapland  to  Italy.  On  the  Continent  and  in 
Northern  Asia  the  animal  is  a  little  larger  in  size,  and 
in  the  colder  regions  the  fur  changes  to  grey  or  nearly 
white.  On  the  whole  russet  brown  or  red  is  the  prevailing 
colour  of  the  Squirrels ;  a  Chinese  variety  has  a  red  and 
black  coat  and,  strangely  enough,  red  teeth. 

The  ears  of  the  English  Squirrel  are  erect  and  usually 
tufted ;  its  eyes  are  large  and  black  and  sparkling.  Its 
long,  spreading,  bushy  tail  is  carried  erect  when  the 
animal  is  running  on  the  ground  or  along  a  branch  ;  but 
in  the  course  of  its  leaps  it  is  extended  behind,  and  serves 
at  once  as  a  Vudder  and  a  parachute.  It  can  run  up  or 
down  a  tree  trunk  with  astounding  facility  ;  and  it  can  leap 
from  a  great  height  without  fear  of  injury.  It  is  extremely 
vigilant,  and  the  merest  tap  upon  a  tree  trunk  will  cause 
the  Squirrel  to  take  instant  flight  out  of  its  branches. 

During  the  heat  of  the  day  the  animal  generally  sleeps. 
Its  almost  spherical  nest  of  interlaced  twigs,  grasses,  leaves, 
and  moss  is  an  artistic  and  perfect  specimen  of  animal 
architecture  that  perhaps  no  other  mammal,  unless  it  be  the 
harvest  mouse,  can  equal ;  it  is  rain-proof,  and,  secure  in 
the  fork  of  a  lofty  branch,  will  defy  a  gale. 

A  single  pair  of  Squirrels  often  mate  for  life,  and  occupy 
the  same  nest  year  after  year.  The  family  of  three  or  four 
is  born  in  the  middle  of  summer,  and  the  young  ones 
remain  with  the  parents  until  the  following  spring,  when 
they  take  on  the  cares  of  housekeeping  for  themselves. 

In  addition  to  its  ordinary  food,  nuts,  acorns,  fruit, 
seed,  and  beech-mast  in  particular,  the  Squirrel  will  eat 
insects,  and  plunder  nests  of  their  eggs  and  young.  In 
Canada  the  little  animal,  when  driven  by  hunger,  will 
attack  the  meat  with  which  traps  are  baited  to  catch  some 
of  the  fur-bearing  carnivores.  In  feeding,  all  Squirrels  sit 
up  on  their  haunches  and  hold  their  food  in  the  forepaws. 

The  Squirrel  does  not  hibernate  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  word.  In  autumn  it  commences  to  lay  up  stores  of 
provisions  on  which  to  subsist  when  the  country  is  in 
the  icy  clutch  of  winter.  It  forms  little  magazines  of  food 


THE  SQUIRREL  213 

in  various  selected  spots,  where  it  almost  invariably  finds 
them  when  an  occasional  fine  winter's  day  wakes  the 
animal  up  from  its  long  sleep.  When  it  has  dined  it  again 
retires  to  resume  its  slumbers.  In  the  warmer  regions  the 
Squirrels  do  not  sink  into  a  state  of  torpidity  at  any  time 
of  the  year. 

The  Squirrel  makes  a  charming,  frolicsome  pet,  and 
there  are  few  persons  who  cannot  take  pleasure  in  its 
antics.  In  some  American  public  parks  the  animals  are 
given  their  freedom,  and  their  merry  life  in  the  trees  is 
an  additional  charm  to  the  public  pleasure  resorts.  It  has 
been  proposed  to  adopt  the  same  plan  in  London.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  Squirrels  would  permanently  make 
their  homes  within  the  confines  of  the  parks,  and  it  is 
equally  certain  that  the  London  cat  would  assume  it  was 
its  special  prerogative  to  add  squirrel-hunting  to  its  many 
misdoings.  The  hordes  of  town-bred  cats  have  developed 
quite  wonderful  arboreal  powers,  which  have  already 
resulted  in  the  disappearance  from  the  parks  and  gardens  of 
many  charming  little  songsters,  who  can  no  longer  nest 
there  in  safety.  The  mother  Squirrel  would  be  faced  with 
the  same  difficulty,  for  if  the  old  ones  escaped  the  feline 
prowler,  the  young  Rodents  would  fall  victims  whenever 
they  descended  to  the  ground. 

The  best-known  Squirrels  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  are  the  Black  or  Fox  Squirrel  (Sciurus  niger)}  nearly 
three  feet  in  length,  and  the  smaller  Grey  Squirrel  (Sciurus 
carolinensis).  Some  of  these  animals  have  been  set  free 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  where  they  are  great  favourites 
with  visitors  (Plate  XIX.).  The  Grey  Squirrel  was  at 
one  time  a  pest  in  the  New  England  States,  vast  numbers 
of  the  animals  migrating  from  one  region  to  another, 
devastating  large  tracts  of  cultivated  land  in  the  process. 
Under  an  old  Pennsylvanian  law  threepence  was  paid 
by  the  State  for  each  head  of  this  animal  ;  and  in  a 
single  year  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
Government  paid  no  less  than  .£8,000  on  this  account. 
This  meant  the  death  of  nearly  two  millions  of  the  little 
animal,  whose  ornamental  fur,  which  is  quite  different  from 
the  grey  coat  of  the  Siberian  variety  of  the  Common 


2i4  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

Squirrel,  goes  to  make  the  '  squirrel  cloaks '  that  are  such 
coveted  wear. 

The  tropical  species  of  Squirrel  are  often  more  beauti- 
fully furred  than  their  Northern  brethren.  One  of  the 
best  examples  is  the  Jelerang  (Muscardinus  avellanarius), 
or  Javan  Squirrel,  whose  brownish-black  coat  merges  into 
yellow  on  the  sides  and  abdomen,  the  same  tint  adorning 
the  head  of  the  animal. 


TAGUAN  FLYING  SQUIRREL  (Pteromys  petauristd). 
Plate  XX.  Fig.  i. 

The  Taguan  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  the  Flying 
Squirrels.  It  is  a  native  of  India  and  the  further  south- 
east. It  is  rather  a  large  species  of  the  family  with  a  body 
from  two  to  three  feet  in  length  and  a  tail  of  twenty 
inches.  Its  colour  is  chiefly  clear  chestnut,  deepening 
into  brown  on  the  back.  The  skin  of  the  flanks  is 
modified  in  something  like  similar  fashion,  but  to  a  much 
less  extent  than  in  the  Colugo  or  Flying  Lemur.  In  this 
present  case  the  flying  membrane  extends  to  and  includes 
the  limbs  only  as  far  as  the  wrists  and  ankles,  and  parti- 
cularly it  does  not  include  the  tail.  The  skin  is  developed 
to  such  a  degree  that  when  the  animal  is  sitting,  the  paws 
only  just  appear  from  under  the  soft  folds  of  the  delicately 
thin  membrane. 

When  making  one  of  its  marvellous  leaps,  the  Taguan  first 
stretches  out  its  four  limbs  to  their  fullest  extent ;  and  then, 
taking  off  at  a  greater  height  than  where  it  will  alight,  it  is 
upborne  through  the  air  on  the  furry  parachute.  Strictly 
speaking  the  action  thus  described  is  not  that  of  flying ;  it 
more  resembles  the  daring  dive  of  the  gymnast  from  the 
flying  trapeze  ;  but  nevertheless  the  mode  of  progression 
well  serves  the  Taguan  in  moving  with  the  utmost  rapidity 
from  tree  to  tree. 

Various  species  of  Flying  Squirrels  are  found  from 
Lapland  and  Finland,  through  Siberia,  to  China  and  Japan  ; 
and  in  North  America  as  far  south  as  Guatemala.  The 


PLATE  XXI. 


,      .  -  ^-  •  . 

\  W\^m\  ^      ''"^v,,lf/(», 


I.     POLATOUCHE.  2.     ANOMALUKE. 


FLYING  SQUIRRELS  215 

Polatouche  (Sciuropterus  volans),  Plate  XXI.  Fig.  i, 
is  an  elegant  little  creature,  whose  tawny  brown  body 
is  only  six  inches  long ;  on  the  outside  of  the  limbs 
and  the  flying  membrane  it  is  darker.  In  winter  the  silky 
fur  not  only  becomes  longer,  but  the  main  portions  of  it 
change  into  silver  grey.  Like  its  bigger  relative,  the 
Taguan,  this  little  flier  is  nocturnal,  only  leaving  its  soft- 
lined  nest  in  a  hole  in  a  tree  when  dusk  arrives.  Though 
it  is  really  a  diminutive  creature  even  when  stretched  out 
in  flying  attitude,  it  can  take  flights  of  thirty  yards  with 
ease.  The  Assapan  (Sciuropterus  volucella)  is  the  North 
American  Flying  Squirrel.  It  is  even  smaller  than  the 
preceding,  but  often  attracts  more  attention,  if  only  because 
a  number  of  sociable  Assapans  engage  in  their  evening 
evolutions,  whereas  the  Polatouche  usually  moves  about 
alone  or  only  in  pairs. 


ANOMALURE  (Anomalurus  fulgens). 
Plate  XXI.  Fig.  2. 

Though  it  is  a  Flying  Squirrel,  the  Fulgent  Anomalure 
presents  marked  differences  in  construction  sufficient  to 
raise  it  to  the  dignity  of  a  separate  family.  It  is  a 
West  African  animal,  found  chiefly  in  the  Gaboon 
region. 

One  special  point  of  difference  rests  in  the  fact  that  in 
front  the  flying  membrane  extends,  not  from  the  wrists, 
but  from  elbow  to  elbow,  being  additionally  braced  by  a 
rod  of  bony  cartilage,  almost  as  though  the  animal  pos- 
sessed four  front  limbs.  The  flying  membranes  of  the 
Colugo,  the  Taguan  and  its  allies,  and  the  Anomalure, 
really  differ  only  in  the  points  of  attachment  to  the  limbs, 
but  the  last-named  animal  exhibits  a  feature  that  is  entirely 
absent  in  the  others.  On  the  under  side  of  the  root  of 
the  long,  thickly-haired  tail  is  a  row  of  horny  scales, 
which  are  useful  as  an  additional  aid  in  holding  securely 
to  the  bark  of  a  branch  while  preparing  to  take  a  flying 
leap. 


216  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

CHIPMUNK  (Tamias   striatus}. 
Plate  XXIV.  Fig.  3. 

The  true  Ground  Squirrels,  of  which  the  North  American 
Chipmunk  is  the  best  known,  are,  first  and  foremost,  bur- 
rowers  ;  but  they  are  equally  at  home  in  whisking  about 
brushwood  and  small  timber.  The  animal  is  also  known 
as  the  Hackee,  or  Chipping  Squirrel.  This  last  name  is 
gained  from  the  animal's  little  cry,  like  the  chip-chipping 
of  a  newly  hatched  chicken.  It  is  a  beautiful  creature  in 
form  and  colour,  and,  including  its  tail,  is  just  under  a  foot 
in  length.  On  the  back  the  fur  is  brownish-grey,  warming 
into  orange-brown  on  the  forehead  and  hindquarters  ; 
upon  the  sides  are  stripes  of  black  and  yellowish-white ; 
but  the  colours  vary  considerably,  being  generally  lighter 
in  the  north.  If  only  the  fur  were  less  common  and  more 
difficult  to  obtain,  it  might  easily  take  as  high  a  rank  as 
sable  or  ermine. 

The  American  Ground  Squirrel  extends  roughly  from 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  Manitoba  as  far  south  as  Missouri 
and  Georgia ;  and  what  is  practically  the  same  animal  is 
found  in  the  north-east  of  Europe  and  across  Northern 
Asia.  They  live  in  burrows  deep  enough  to  afford  pro- 
tection from  the  severe  cold  in  winter.  Most  of  these 
burrowing  squirrels  have  cheek  pouches,  which  are  speci- 
ally useful  when  the  animals  are  storing  up  food  for  winter 
use.  They  have  very  liberal  ideas  of  what  their  needs 
will  be  during  their  retirement,  and  though  it  is  hard  work 
to  dig  the  animals  out  of  the  frozen  ground — in  Siberia,  for 
example — the  poor  natives  are  satisfied  with  the  hoard  of 
nuts  and  roots  which  usually  rewards  them  for  their 
trouble. 

Being  ground-dwellers,  the  Chipmunk  and  its  various 
relations  are  always  liable  to  be  raided  by  birds  of  prey 
and  various  of  the  carnivores ;  but  the  female  breeds 
twice  a  year,  and  thus  the  animals  abound  sufficiently 
to  migrate  in  quite  large  bodies  when  the  food  supply 
of  any  region  makes  it  advisable  for  them  to  change 
their  quarters. 


GROUND  SQUIRRELS  217 

MARMOT   (Arctomys   marmottd). 
Coloured  Plate  XIV.  Fig.  7. 

The  Marmot  in  appearance  differs  from  the  chipmunk 
only  in  its  heavier  build,  its  shorter  tail,  and  its  stronger 
claws  for  more  extensive  burrowing.  In  disposition  and 
ordinary  movement  it  is  sluggish,  and  under  no  circum- 
stances is  it  a  tree-climber  in  the  Old  World.  The  various 
species  are  restricted  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The 
best  known  is  the  Alpine  Marmot,  which  is  about  the  size  of 
a  rabbit.  It  inhabits  the  higher  regions  of  the  Alps, 
Pyrenees,  and  Carpathians,  at  elevations  of  seven  or  eight 
thousand  feet,  and  is  the  only  European  warm-blooded 
quadruped  found  permanently  at  so  great  a  height. 

The  burrows  of  a  Marmot  colony,  which  in  Europe  are 
found  in  open  spaces  very  near  the  line  of  perpetual  snow, 
are  rather  complicated.  They  consist  of  a  number  of 
chambers  approached  by  narrow  tunnels  six  or  more  feet 
in  length,  from  which  the  animals  issue  to  feed  on  the 
mountain  herbage,  roots,  leaves,  and  seeds  of  various  plants. 
While  they  are  feeding,  one  or  more  of  the  number  keep 
watch  to  prevent  surprise  by  enemies.  The  slightest 
unusual  circumstance  will  cause  the  sentinels  to  give  the 
alarm,  and  the  animals  at  once  dart  for  the  entrances  to  the 
burrows,  where  they  sit  up  to  look  back  and  ascertain  the 
nature  of  the  threatened  danger.  If  it  is  not  a  false  alarm 
they  dive  headlong  into  their  retreats.  Very  often  they 
quickly  reappear,  but  two  alarms,  even  though  they  are  in 
quick  succession,  will  cause  them  to  remain  underground 
for  the  rest  of  the  day. 

The  squirrel  wakes  up  from  its  winter  sleep  at  intervals 
to  pay  visits  to  its  various  storehouses  ;  but  the  Marmots,  in 
their  grass-lined  burrows,  stop  up  the  outlets.  The  earlier 
portion  of  their  retirement  is  spent  in  eating  their  stores,  and 
then,  huddled  up  in  parties  of  a  dozen  or  fifteen,  they  sleep 
for  as  long  as  six  or  seven  months.  Just  before  the  retiring 
season  the  Marmot  is  very  fat  and  its  fur  is  in  excellent 
condition  ;  and  this  is  the  time  which  is  chosen  for  Marmot- 
hunting. 


218  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

At  one  time  it  was  no  uncommon  event  in  England  to 
see  an  Alpine  Marmot  carried  by  a  Savoyard  beggar  ;  but 
nowadays  a  monkey  is  the  usual  aid  to  extract  coppers  from 
the  charitable,  probably  because  its  antics  are  more  pleasing 
to  children.  There  are  other  Marmots  very  similar  in  ap- 
pearance and  habit.  The  Bobac  (Arctomys  bobac)  is  found 
in  Eastern  Russia  and  throughout  Siberia  to  the  shores  of 
the  Pacific  ;  the  Hoary  Marmot  (Arctomys  pruinosus),  one 
of  the  largest  species,  lives  in  the  north-west  of  British 
North  America,  certainly  as  far  North  as  the  Arctic  Circle. 

WOODCHUCK  (Arctomys  monax). 

The  Woodchuck,  the  smallest  of  the  American  species, 
only  measures  twenty  inches,  including  the  tail.  Preferring 
to  live  in  hillsides  or  open  grass  land  near  to  cultivated 
districts,  the  Woodchuck  is  often  responsible  for  much 
damage  to  agriculture.  In  the  New  England  States  it  has 
sometimes  been  found  necessary  to  offer  rewards  to  keep 
down  the  number  of  the  animals.  The  Woodchuck,  unlike 
its  relatives,  will  sometimes  ascend  trees,  especially  when  it 
is  pressed  by  an  enemy.  It  appears  to  fix  the  time  of  its 
retirement  to  its  winter  quarters  altogether  regardless  of 
climatic  conditions.  At  the  end  of  September  it  vanishes 
for  months.  Thus  it  comes  about  that  it  is  often  under- 
ground during  weeks  of  genial  weather  and  while  there  is 
abundance  of  food ;  and  in  the  succeeding  spring  it  reap- 
pears when,  owing  to  the  belated  season,  winter  has  not 
really  taken  its  departure.  Its  retirement  and  its  reappear- 
ance a  month  later  in  each  case  would  appear  to  make  for 
comfort,  and  why  the  animal's  instinct  does  not  suggest 
such  a  course  cannot  be  explained. 


PRAIRIE  DOG  (Cynomys  ludovicianus). 
Plate  XXII.  Fig.  2. 

The  Prairie  Dog  is  not  a  member  of  the  canine  family, 
and  in  form  and  habits  it  bears  not  the  least  resemblance  to 
a  dog.  The  animal  probably  gains  its  name  on  account  of 


THE   BEAVER  219 

its  bark-like  cry  when  alarmed.  It  is  also  called  the  Barking 
Squirrel,  which  is  strictly  appropriate,  as  it  is  simply  a 
Marmot  inhabiting  the  prairies  to  the  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  In  its  general  size  and  coat  the  animal  is  un- 
doubtedly of  the  ground  squirrel  type,  though  its  head  is 
rounder  and  it  possesses  a  tail  only  three  inches  in  length. 

The  Prairie  Dog  is  gregarious,  often  living  together  in 
huge  numbers  in  a  labyrinth  of  burrows  and  tunnels,  which 
is  usually  called  a  '  dog  town.'  The  warren  does  not 
appear  to  be  of  haphazard  construction,  for  there  is  always 
a  number  of  tunnels,  unbroken  by  burrows,  which  serve  as 
the  main  thoroughfares.  A  '  dog  town/  under  usual  cir- 
cumstances, is  a  scene  of  peaceful  animation.  In  front  of 
every  hole  is  a  little  hillock  of  earth,  which  the  Prairie 
Marmots  use  as  seats  and  watch-towers.  If  danger  threaten, 
the  very  first  yelp  of  alarm  is  sufficient  to  cause  the  whole 
populace  to  disappear  in  a  cloud  of  dust,  thrown  up  by 
countless  legs  and  tails.  The  animal  is  in  no  sense  a  hiber- 
nator,  only  retiring  during  the  most  severe  period  of  the 
winter. 

Alien  inhabitants  are  viewed  with  dislike  in  the  cities  of 
men,  and  measures  are  taken  to  restrict  their  entrance,  or  at 
least  to  enforce  obedience  to  the  laws  of  the  community. 
The  inhabitants  of  a  '  dog  town '  are  helpless  against  two 
intruders  who  often  take  up  their  residence  with  them. 
The  rattlesnake  and  the  burrowing  owl  not  only  seize 
upon  ready-made  quarters,  but  mainly  subsist  upon  the 
young  of  their  unwilling  hosts. 

FAMILY    CASTORID^:. 

BEAVER  (Castor  fiber). 
Coloured  Plate  XIV.  Fig.  9. 

The  Beaver,  the  sole  representative  of  the  family,  is  an 
aquatic  animal,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Rodents,  attaining 
a  length  of  three  feet.  It  is  stoutly  and  heavily  built, 
especially  in  the  hind-quarters.  The  legs  are  short  and 
strong,  and  the  five  toes  on  each  foot  are  sharply  clawed  ; 


220  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

on  the  second  toe  of  the  hind  foot  is  an  additional  claw, 
assisting  to  make  the  foot  a  better  comb  for  the  animal  to 
dress  its  fur.  The  hind  feet  only  are  webbed  to  the  nails. 
The  head  is  large  and  round  and  the  ears  are  short ;  the  tail, 
broad  and  flat,  is  scaly  and  furrowed.  The  coat  of  the  Beaver 
is  very  thick  and  peculiarly  soft  and  silky  ;  it  is  chestnut- 
brown  above  and  greyer  below.  The  fur  is  generally 
darker  towards  the  northern  limits  of  the  animal's  habitat. 

A  few  centuries  ago  the  Beaver  was  common  to  almost  the 
whole  of  Europe,  from  Wales  to  the  Urals,  and  it  extended 
across  all  Northern  Asia.  It  has  disappeared  entirely  from 
Britain,  and  the  few  that  still  exist  in  Europe  are  to  be 
found  only  in  Scandinavia  and  Poland,  and  only  there 
because  they  are  strictly  preserved.  There  used  to  be 
Beavers  in  the  Thames,  and  they  existed  in  Wales  as  late  as 
1188. 

The  American  Beaver  was  extremely  common  when  the 
continent  was  first  discovered,  but  comparatively  very  few 
now  remain  in  the  United  States,  chiefly  in  the  West ;  and 
in  Canada  their  numbers  are  being  steadily  thinned  towards 
vanishing-point.  In  1743,  from  Quebec  alone,  127,000  skins 
were  exported  to  England,  and  the  depletion  has  proceeded 
apace  since  that  time,  until  now  in  the  course  of  a  whole 
year  perhaps  not  more  than  a  few  thousand  Beavers  fall  to 
the  trapper. 

The  Beaver  figures  in  the  Canadian  national  shield  as 
an  emblem  of  industry  and  sagacity  ;  and,  indeed,  if  only 
half  of  humanity  was  as  intelligent,  as  provident,  and  as 
laborious,  ours  would  be  a  very  different  world.  It  is 
chiefly  its  constructive  capacity  that  attracts  popular 
interest,  and  of  all  animals  it  is  the  most  methodical 
engineer  and  builder. 

Living  in  smaller  or  larger  societies,  the  animals  select  a 
site  in  a  stream  upon  which  to  rear  an  elaborate  habitation. 
They  require  still  water  of  sufficient  depth  to  leave  at  least 
the  bottom  of  it  free  of  ice  even  in  the  most  severe  frost ; 
and  as  timber  is  an  absolute  necessity,  the  animals  only 
frequent  streams  with  wooded  banks.  The  incisor  teeth  of 
the  Beaver  are  large,  and  so  hard  that  the  Indians  use 
them  for  cutting  bone  ;  and  the  animals  find  little  difficulty 


THE   BEAVER 


221 


JAWS  OF  THE  BEAVER. 


in  gnawing  through  the  trunks  of  trees  six  or  seven  or  as 
many  as  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  Trees  on  river-banks 
usually  lean  towards  the  water,  and  consequently  they 
fall  in  the  right  direction. 
A  tree  is  stripped  of  its 
branches  and  is  then  cut 
into  logs  from  three  to  six 
feet  in  length,  which  are 
conveyed  to  the  bed  of  the 
stream,  and  with  the 
branches,  stones,  and  mud 
are  built  up  into  a  dam. 
Sometimes  a  dam  is  two 
hundred  yards  long,  from 
ten  to  twelve  feet  in  thick- 
ness at  the  bottom,  narrowing  to  about  two  feet  at  the 
top.  The  dam  is  either  straight  or  curved,  as  called  for  by 
peculiarities  in  the  bed  of  the  stream. 

Within  the  pool  thus  formed  the  Beavers  build  '  lodges,' 
somewhat  dome-shaped  houses,  of  branches,  moss,  and 
mud,  each  large  enough  to  afford  accommodation  for  five 
or  six  animals.  The  lodges,  of  which  there  are  sometimes 
as  many  as  thirty  in  a  '  village/  are  connected  with  the 
bank  by  burrows,  the  entrances  to  which  are  always  under 
water.  There  are  two  reasons  for  this  precaution — it  is 
a  protection  from  the  wolverene,  which  dislikes  water 
as  much  as  a  cat ;  and  it  enables  the  Beaver  to  reach  or 

leave  its  retreat, 
to  gain  access  to 
food,  when  the  river 
is  frozen  over  to  a 
depth  of  three  feet 
or  more. 

The  mud  roof  of 
a  lodge  is  repaired 
or  renewed  every 
year.  The  plaster- 
ing is  done  with  the  fore  feet,  and  not  with  the  tail  as 
is  so  often  stated.  The  Beaver  only  uses  its  hind  legs  in 
swimming,  and  the  tail  is  simply  a  rudder,  particularly 


TAIL   OF  THE   BEAVER. 


222  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

serviceable  when  the  animal  is  propelling  a  log  to  a  desired 
spot. 

In  winter,  the  wolverene,  the  inveterate  foe  of  the 
Beaver  family,  comes  across  the  ice  to  a  lodge.  But  the 
compost  of  mud  and  moss  is  frozen  into  almost  the  solidity 
of  concrete,  that  would  offer  good  resistance  to  iron  tools, 
and  the  carnivore's  claws  make  little  impression  upon  it. 

Though  the  Beaver  does  not  hibernate,  it  is  far  less 
active  in  winter,  only  leaving  the  lodge  to  pay  a  visit  to  the 
heap  of  logs  fastened  down  in  the  mud.  Having  dragged 
a  log  out  of  the  store,  the  Beaver  eats  the  bark  and  then 
usually  applies  the  timber  to  strengthen  the  dam.  In 
summer  the  animal  eats  the  roots  and  stems  of  various 
aquatic  plants,  but  bark  is  its  staple  diet. 

The  Beaver  is  hunted  for  its  fur,  which  is  employed  for 
expensive  articles  of  apparel.  It  also  yields  castoreum, 
which  is  obtained  from  two  glands  near  the  end  of  the 
body.  At  one  time  used  in  medicine,  the  odoriferous  sub- 
stance is  now  chiefly  employed  in  perfumery.  Beavers  can 
scent  castoreum  at  a  considerable  distance,  and  are  irresis- 
tibly attracted  by  it.  When  a  hunter  sets  a  trap  he  fixes 
it  about  six  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  from 
it  projects  a  twig  that  has  been  dipped  in  castoreum,  or 
'  barkstone,'  as  the  trappers  call  it.  The  Beaver,  drawn  to 
the  spot  by  the  powerful  odour,  often  falls  a  victim  to  the 
hidden  snare. 

It  is  asserted  that  sometimes  are  found  lazy  Beavers  who 
will  not  assist  in  building  dams  or  lodges.  As  these  drones 
are  usually  males,  it  is  most  probable  that  they  have 
been  conquered  by  their  stronger  brethren  in  fights  for 
partners,  and  then  driven  out  of  the  community,  to 
become  idlers  from  necessity  rather  than  from  choice. 


MOUSE-LIKE  RODENTS. 
FAMILY    MURID^E. 

The  Muridae  is  the  largest  and  most  typical  family  of  the 
Rodents.  They  are  mainly  small  animals,  and  include  some 
of  the  tiniest  of  the  mammals.  Mice  and  Rats  are  almost 


THE  COMMON   MOUSE  223 

too  familiar  to  require  description,  but  there  are  a  number 
of  other  animals  whose  relationship  to  them  might  not  at 
first  glance  be  suspected. 

Most  of  the  Mouse-like  Rodents  are  terrestrial,  but  among 
them  we  find  climbers,  jumpers,  and  swimmers,  many  of 
which,  to  accord  with  their  particular  habit,  have  some 
modification  of  structure.  Some  or  other  of  the  three 
hundred  and  thirty  species  are  found  throughout  the  world. 
The  Common  Mouse  and  the  Common  Rat  in  particular  are 
cosmopolitan,  having  accompanied  the  white  man  in  his 
restless  wanderings  into  the  uttermost  corners  of  the  earth. 
Individually,  any  one  of  the  Muridae  family  is  practically  in- 
significant in  size,  and  in  natural  disposition  is  one  of  the 
most  timid  of  living  creatures.  But  many  of  the  smaller 
omnivorous  species  are  so  prolific,  and  multiply  to  such  an 
amazing  extent,  as  to  demand  far  more  attention  than  very 
many  larger  animals. 

It  is  manifestly  impossible  to  describe  a  tithe  of  the 
various  species,  but  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  give  a  selection 
of  typical  representatives  that  will  well  serve  for  the  whole. 

HOUSE   MOUSE    (Mus  musculus). 
Plate  XXIII.  Fig.  2. 

This  small  creature  possesses  the  characteristics  of  the 
true  Rodent,  and  a  brief  description  of  its  structure  will  in 
the  main  apply  equally  to  the  larger  members  of  the  family. 
The  fur  is  usually  of  a  brownish  ash  colour  above  and 
light  beneath — just  the  colour  that  ren- 
ders the  animal  difficult  to  detect  at 
night-time.  Its  legs,  with  squirrel-like 
paws,  are  short  and  noiseless  for  creep- 
ing.  The  ears  and  eyes  are  large,  in  SKULL  OF  THE 
agreement  with  the  watchful  creatures  MOUSE. 

necessities.      The    forepaws    are    used   as 
hands,   during   which   time   the   tail  assists  to   steady  the 
body  in  sitting  up.     The  long,  flexible,  scaly  tail  is  very 
sensitive   to   touch.     Though   so   small,   the  incisor   teeth 
of  the  Mouse,  with   their   rasp-like  edges   of   enamel,  can 


224  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

easily  gnaw  through  boards,  and  even  through  leaden 
pipes. 

The  Mouse  makes  a  ball-like  nest  of  rags,  paper,  wool, 
straw,  and  all  kinds  of  nibbled  litter,  in  which  it  brings  forth 
a  family  several  times  a  year ;  and  in  fifteen  days  the  young 
ones  are  able  to  foray  for  themselves.  When  only  a  few 
months  old  they  commence  to  bring  litters  into  the  world  ; 
which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  natural  enemies  of 
Mice  make  so  little  impression  upon  their  numbers. 

In  ordinary  dwelling-houses  Mice  cause  considerable 
annoyance ;  but  in  stores,  warehouses  and  barns  their 
opportunities  for  mischief  are  increased  a  hundredfold. 
Rickyards  are  the  happiest  abodes  of  the  little  Rodents, 
which  can  make  their  runs  in  and  under  a  cornstack 
secure  from  disturbance  until  the  corn  is  threshed.  At  the 
threshing  of  one  rick  it  is  nothing  unusual  to  capture 
Mice  by  the  bushel,  and  the  quantity  of  grain  they  con- 
sume may  easily  make  inroads  upon  the  farmer's  profits. 


FIELD  MOUSE  (Mus  sylvaticus). 

The  Field  Mouse,  often  called  the  Wood  Mouse, 
frequents  gardens,  hedgerows,  and  cornfields,  although  in 
winter  it  does  not  hesitate  to  seek  shelter  in  barns  and 
outhouses.  In  rickyards  it  is  common,  but  in  far  less 
numbers  than  the  foregoing.  It  makes  its  home  in  any 
small  crevice,  under  the  roots  of  trees,  and  often  in  the 
deserted  runs  of  the  mole.  It  is  distributed  over  all  the 
temperate  regions  of  Europe. 

It  is  slightly  larger  than  the  common  mouse,  and  its  tail 
is  nearly  the  length  of  its  head  and  body ;  the  legs,  too,  are 
rather  longer.  The  fur  is  reddish  grey,  with  a  spot  of  light 
brown  on  the  chest. 

The  food  of  the  Field  Mouse  consists  chiefly  of  grain 
and  seeds,  acorns  and  nuts,  of  which  it  stores  up  a 
considerable  quantity  for  use  during  the  winter.  Though 
the  creature  works  no  little  injury  to  crops,  the  greatest 
damage  arises  from  hogs  rooting  up  the  ground  in  search 
of  the  winter  hoards  of  the  thrifty  little  Rodents. 


PLATE  XXII. 


or>-cf  f./^ 


FIELD    VOLES. 
(Sec  Page  230) 


2.     PRAIRIE    DOG. 
(Src    afe  218 


PLATE  XXIII, 


i.     HARVEST    MICK. 


2.     HOUSE    MICE. 

(Sec  page  223) 


THE  HARVEST  MOUSE  225 

HARVEST    MOUSE  (Mus    minutis). 
Plate  XXIII.  Fig.  i. 

Except  for  the  pigmy  shrew  the  Harvest  Mouse  is  the 
smallest  of  the  mammals,  as  it  certainly  is  the  prettiest  of 
all  those  found  in  the  British  Islands.  It  is  only  about 
two  and  a  half  inches  long  from  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  its 
tail,  and  it  is  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  in  weight. 
The  colour  of  its  fur  is  a  delicate  yellowish  red,  with  white 
on  the  under  parts ;  the  two  colours  are  separated  by  a 
well-defined  line.  All  mice  and  rats  are  good  climbers, 
but  the  Harvest  Mouse  is  easily  superior  to  all  others. 
It  holds  on  to  a  grass  stem  as  firmly  as  if  the  tiny  paws  were 
those  of  a  monkey,  twisting  its  partly  prehensile  tail  around 
it.  The  stem  may  bend  over  until  it  reaches  the  ground, 
but  the  little  climber  will  not  be  displaced. 

Gilbert  White  was  perhaps  the  first  naturalist  to  take 
particular  notice  of  the  habits  of  the  Harvest  Mouse.  Says 
he :  '  They  breed  as  many  as  eight  at  a  litter,  in  a  little 
round  nest  composed  of  the  blades  of  grass  or  wheat. 
One  of  these  nests  I  procured  this  autumn,  most  artificially 
plaited,  perfectly  round  and  about  the  size  of  a  cricket 
ball,  with  the  aperture  so  ingeniously  closed  that  there 
was  no  discovering  to  what  part  it  belonged.  It  was  so 
compact  and  well  filled,  that  it  would  roll  across  the 
table  without  being  discomposed,  though  it  contained  eight 
little  mice  that  were  naked  and  blind.  As  this  nest  was 
perfectly  full,  how  could  the  dam  come  at  her  litter 
respectively,  so  as  to  administer  a  teat  to  each  ?  Perhaps 
she  opens  different  places  for  that  purpose,  adjusting  them 
again  when  the  business  is  over  ;  but  she  could  not 
possibly  be  contained  herself  in  the  ball  with  her  young, 
which,  moreover,  would  be  daily  increasing  in  bulk.' 

In  winter  the  Harvest  Mouse  retires  to  its  burrow,  where 
it  lies  in  a  state  of  torpor.  But  in  harvest-time  vast 
numbers  of  them  are  transported  in  the  sheaves  to  the 
rickyards,  where  they  join  the  common  and  the  field  mice. 
Perhaps  it  is  owing  to  an  entirely  mistaken  sense  of  grati- 
tude that  the  Harvest  Mouse  in  a  rick  does  not  hibernate. 

16 


226  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

DORMOUSE  (Muscardinus  avellanarius). 
Plate  XXIV.  Fig.  i. 

Although  belonging  to  another  family  we  will  here  con- 
sider the  Common  Dormouse,  rather  an  elegant  little  animal 
only  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  with  a  bushy  tail 
quite  as  long.  It  is  not  a  true  mouse,  but  appears 
to  be  about  intermediate  between  the  squirrels  and  the 
mice,  with  a  nearer  affinity  to  the  former.  It  is  confined 
to  the  temperate  and  colder  regions  of  the  Old  World, 
and,  for  example,  is  not  found  in  Southern  Europe. 

In  body  it  is  plumper  than  the  common  mouse,  and 
its  nose  is  less  acute.  Its  coat  is  mainly  reddish  brown  ; 
it  is  lighter  underneath  and  almost  white  on  the  throat. 
Its  tail  is  more  hairy  as  it  approaches  the  tip. 

The  Dormouse  inhabits  woods  or  thick  hedges,  making 
a  nest  of  woven  grass  in  the  hollows  of  tree-trunks  or 
near  the  roots  of  close  shrubs.  Instead  of  being  diurnal 
like  the  squirrel,  the  Dormouse  is  nocturnal.  It  eats  nuts 
and  seeds,  although  it  does  not  disdain  an  insect  that 
comes  its  way.  It  is  particularly  fond  of  hazel  nuts, 
extracting  the  kernels  without  removing  them  from  the 
stems  or  even  from  their  cups.  Hence  the  name  '  Hazel- 
mouse  '  which  the  animal  bears  in  Germany. 

As  winter  approaches  the  Dormouse  commences  to 
collect  a  store  of  nuts,  acorns,  &c.,  to  serve  it  when  it 
wakes  at  intervals  in  its  long  sleep.  With  the  arrival  of  the 
cold  weather  it  rolls  itself  up  in  its  winter  nest  and  falls 
into  a  lethargic  state.  Both  summer  and  winter  nests 
are  frequently  found,  to  the  number  of  a  dozen  or  more,  in 
the  same  thicket. 

A  larger  European  specimen  is  the  Loir,  or  Fat  Dor- 
mouse (Myoxus  glis),  with  its  habitat  in  the  Southern 
countries  and  extending  into  Asia.  It  attains  a  length  of 
six  inches  with  a  tail  three-quarters  as  long.  It  is  said 
to  add  small  birds  and  smaller  animals  than  itself  to  its 
professedly  vegetable  diet.  The  Loir  is  eaten  by  the 
Italians,  only  following  the  old  Roman  epicures,  who 
specially  fattened  the  little  animal  for  the  table. 


RATS  227 

BLACK    EAT  (Mus  rattus). 
Plate  XXIV.  Fig.  2. 

Any  species  of  true  rat  may  be  best  described  as  a  large 
mouse  with  its  powers  of  destruction  developed  out  of 
all  proportion  to  its  size.  The  Black  Rat,  or  Old  English 
Rat  as  it  is  called,  is  often  stated  to  be  indigenous  to 
Britain,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  animal  was 
introduced  into  Europe  from  the  East.  It  is  now  com- 
paratively scarce  in  this  country,  but  on  the  Continent  it  is 
still  widely  dispersed. 

The  Black  Rat  is  about  seven  inches  long,  with  a  tail 
as  long  or  even  longer.  Its  upper  parts,  in  colour,  are 
deep  iron-grey,  bordering  upon  black ;  the  under  parts  are 
lighter.  The  feet,  dirty  pale  flesh-colour  and  practically 
destitute  of  hair,  differ  in  one  important  particular  from 
those  of  the  mouse.  The  hind  feet  can  be  turned  right 
round,  and  with  the  claws  thus  at  the  back  the  animal  can 
walk  up  a  rough  wall  or  fence,  or  come  down  it  head- 
foremost. Like  most  of  the  genus,  it  holds  its  food  in  its 
fore  paws. 

BROWN  RAT  (Mus  decumanus). 
Coloured  Plate  XIV.  Fig.  i. 

The  Brown  Rat  is  often  called  the  Norwegian  Rat,  under 
the  mistaken  idea  that  the  animal  was  imported  into  this 
country  from  Norway.  It  is  really  a  native  of  China,  that 
in  the  short  space  of  two  cen- 
turies has  not  only  spread 
across  the  whole  of  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere,  but  by  means  of 
shipping  has  been  carried  into 
every  part  of  the  world.  It  is  SKULL  OF  THE 

authentic  that  in  the  year  1727 

immense  swarms  of  Brown  Rats  swam  across  the  Volga  to 
make  their  homes  in  Eastern  Europe,  and  twenty  years 
later  the  rodent  usurper  was  established  in  England.  But 
the  outstanding  feature  of  the  Western  invasion  by  the 


228  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

Brown  Rat  is  the  manner  in  which  it  has  made  war  upon 
the  black  species,  which  it  has  practically  exterminated  in 
England  and  many  parts  of  the  Continent. 

The  Brown  Rat  is  two  inches  longer,  and  is  of  heavier 
build  than  its  black  relative ;  its  muzzle  is  blunter,  ears 
smaller,  and  tail  shorter  than  the  head  and  body.  In  colour 
it  is  greyish-brown,  but  the  shade  varies  considerably. 

The  chief  character  of  the  Brown  Rat  is  undoubtedly  its 
astonishing  voracity.  There  is  no  human  food  that  it  will 
not  eat  greedily.  Provisions  of  all  kinds  are  ruined,  ricks 
and  grain-stores  are  looted,  hen-roosts  are  robbed  of  their 
eggs  and  young  chicks,  and  rabbit  warrens  of  their  young. 
In  the  summer  the  pertinacious  Rodent  will  betake  itself 
to  the  fields,  making  its  home  in  the  hedge-banks,  from 
which  it  issues  to  prey  upon  the  contents  of  birds'  nests, 
and  almost  anything  that  creeps  or  crawls  that  is  smaller 
than  itself.  It  frequently  takes  up  its  quarters  in  a  river- 
bank,  where  it  will  contrive  to  catch  fish.  In  such  a  situa- 
tion the  Brown  Rat  is  frequently  mistaken  for  the  Water 
Rat,  or  Water  Vole  as  it  is  more  properly  called. 

The  Brown  Rat  is  wonderfully  prolific,  the  female  pro- 
ducing litters  of  from  eight  to  ten  young  ones  several  times 
a  year ;  and  a  young  female  will  commence  breeding  by 
the  time  that  it  is  half-grown.  It  is  easy  to  understand 
how  these  Rodents  may  speedily  become  a  pest  in  any 
locality  they  particularly  favour.  They  excavate  with  a 
persistence  that  often  endangers  the  foundations  of  build- 
ings ;  they  burrow  through  river  and  canal  dams,  often 
resulting  in  immense  damage ;  they  infest  the  holds  of 
ships,  and  in  a  variety  of  ways  they  contrive  to  effect 
endless  mischief. 

Although  the  animal  is  omnivorous,  it  displays  a  prefer- 
ence for  animal  food.  In  large  towns  the  sewers  are  infested 
by  hordes  of  rats,  which  devour  the  animal  offal  and  refuse, 
and  in  this  respect  do  good  service  in  their  office  as  scaven- 
gers. But  the  creatures  do  not  restrict  themselves  to  offal ; 
if  they  can  effect  an  entrance  into  a  butcher's  store  they  will 
not  only  attack  the  meat,  but  will  confine  themselves  to  the 
best  joints.  It  has  frequently  occurred  that,  from  a  ship, 
Brown  Rats  have  obtained  entry  into  an  island,  where 


THE  BROWN  RAT  229 

hitherto  they  were  unknown.  In  a  few  years  they  exter- 
minate the  smaller  animals  and  birds,  and  have  to  continue 
a  more  precarious  subsistence  upon  the  marine  crustaceans 
and  molluscs  that  can  be  picked  up  on  the  shore. 

Rats  always  prey  upon  any  of  their  kind  that  have  been 
wounded  or  disabled  ;  and  when  food  is  scarce  the  strong 
inevitably  prey  upon  the  weak.  No  better  example  can  be 
adduced  than  the  manner  in  which  the  comparatively  gentler 
Black  Rat  has  succumbed  to  the  brown  species.  In  some 
cases  the  former  have  been  known  to  confine  themselves  to 
one  part  of  a  building  and  the  latter  to  another  portion  ; 
on  board  ship  one  species  has  kept  to  the  fore  part,  while 
the  aft  has  been  the  special  domain  of  the  other.  But 
the  ultimate  result  is  always  the  same — the  Brown  Rats 
invariably  devour  their  sable  kindred. 

The  superiority  of  the  brown  species,  and  its  extreme 
ferocity,  are  exemplified  in  an  incident  vouched  for  by 
the  late  Frank  Buckland.  A  London  rat-catcher  captured 
several  dozen  rats,  consisting  of  more  or  less  even  numbers 
of  brown  and  black  ones.  They  were  intended  to  provide 
sport  for  some  dogs  on  the  following  day.  By  morning, 
however,  only  Brown  Rats  remained — the  black  ones  had 
fallen  victims  to  the  rapacity  of  their  cannibal  fellow- 
prisoners. 

Though  a  rat  will  always  attempt  to  escape  from  man 
and  any  animal  not  weaker  than  itself,  it  will  present  a 
savage  front  when  brought  to  bay.  It  will  defend  itself 
to  the  last  against  man,  and  many  cats  and  dogs  will  turn 
tail  at  its  desperate  onslaught.  In  some  cases  it  has  been 
known  to  attack  persons,  especially  children,  in  their  sleep. 

When  impelled  by  hunger,  rats  migrate  in  large  bodies 
in  search  of  food,  and  then,  with  the  additional  courage 
which  numbers  give,  they  will  not  hesitate  to  attack  human 
beings,  as  a  Hertfordshire  farmer  received  painful  proof. 
One  night,  in  crossing  a  common,  he  encountered  a  body 
of  rats,  a  hundred  strong.  Though  by  throwing  stones  at 
them  he  endeavoured  to  prevent  their  purpose,  they  sur- 
rounded him,  some  of  them  running  up  his  body  as  high 
as  his  shoulder,  and  inflicting  severe  bites,  especially  upon 
his  hands. 


23o  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

English  rats  occasionally  attain  a  weight  of  more  than 
four  pounds  and  a  length  exceeding  twenty-two  inches.  In 
China  they  are  fed  up  for  food,  and  are  hawked  about  for 
sale.  Weighing  as  much  as  seven  or  eight  pounds,  they  are 
not  at  all  unlike  small  sucking-pigs. 

Rats  are  always  found  in  coal-mines,  securing  the  greater 
part  of  their  living  from  the  provender  of  the  horses  em- 
ployed underground  and  scraps  of  the  miners'  food.  At 
holiday  times  it  is  not  unusual  to  bring  to  the  surface  the 
horses  and  the  store  of  corn.  Once,  says  Mr.  Robert 
Stephenson,  a  pit  was  closed  for  a  longer  time  than  usual, 
and  the  rats  were  reduced  to  starvation.  The  very  first 
man  who  descended  to  resume  work  was  attacked  by  the 
hungry  horde,  and  killed  and  devoured  before  his  friends 
could  descend  to  his  rescue. 

Modern  science  has  proved  that  the  rat  is  very  largely 
instrumental  in  the  spread  of  the  plague,  the  ravages  of 
which,  for  example,  in  India  alone  in  the  years  1906-1908 
caused  no  less  than  five  million  and  a  quarter  deaths. 
The  Rodent  is  particularly  susceptible  to  disease,  that  is 
conveyed  to  man  by  fleas  which  infest  its  fur.  The  fleas 
suck  the  blood  of  a  plague-stricken  rat,  and  as  soon  as  the 
victim  is  dead  they  desert  the  cold  carcass  to  inflict,  per- 
haps, their  next  bites  upon  human  beings,  to  whom  they 
convey  the  plague  bacillus.  Although  the  rat  has  always 
had  every  man's  hand  against  it,  the  constant  efforts  to 
exterminate  it  have  generally  met  with  failure ;  but  the 
resources  of  science  are  capable  of  proving  too  much  for 
the  destructive  and  disease-disseminating  vermin.  Prepara- 
tions can  now  be  obtained  which  rats  will  greedily  devour, 
the  effect  of  which  is  to  cause  a  deadly  epidemic  to  rage 
among  not  only  those  that  partake  of  it,  but  also  the 
animals  with  which  they  mix.  Dogs,  cats,  fowls,  &c.,  can 
eat  the  preparation  without  suffering  inconvenience. 

FIELD    VOLE    (Arvicola  agrestis). 
Plate   XXII.   Fig.  i. 

The  Field  Vole,  or  Short-tailed  Field  Mouse,  with  a 
body  four  inches  long  and  a  tail  of  an  inch  and  a  quarter, 


THE  FIELD  VOLE  231 

bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  true  mice.  The  head  is 
large  in  proportion  and  the  body  is  stoutly  built.  It  is 
of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  changing  to  grey  underneath. 
The  favourite  resort  of  the  Field  Vole  is  damp  meadows, 
adjacent  to  woods  and  copses,  where  it  burrows  incessantly 
and  makes  innumerable  runs.  The  general  food  of  the 
species  consists  of  herbage  of  all  kinds,  roots,  bark,  buds, 
leaves,  and  fruit ;  but  it  will  dine  with  almost  equal  readi- 
ness on  insects  and  flesh.  It  does  not  confine  its  depreda- 
tions to  the  field  ;  it  readily  transfers  them  to  the  rickyard 
and  the  barn. 

It  is  an  amazingly  prolific  little  animal,  as  it  need  be,  one 
would  think,  to  exist  at  all  in  face  of  the  ceaseless  toll  levied 
upon  it  by  weasels,  owls,  and  other  carnivorous  creatures. 
But  the  Vole  brings  three  or  four  families  a  year  into  the 
world,  and  exhibits  a  peculiarity  in  making  its  appearance 
in  swarms  in  some  selected  locality.  '  Mice  plagues '  have 
appeared  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  usually  without 
any  apparent  reason.  One  such  visitation  occurred  in 
1891  in  the  counties  of  Dumfries  and  Roxburgh  in  Scotland. 
It  was  suggested  that  gamekeepers  had  almost  exterminated 
the  weasels  and  owls,  and  thus  the  Voles  had  been  allowed 
to  increase  without  hindrance ;  but  in  other  districts 
that  have  suffered  no  such  reason  could  be  advanced. 

In  the  Forest  of  Dean  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  certain  new  plantations  became  so  infested  with 
Voles  as  to  threaten  destruction  to  the  whole  of  the  young 
trees.  '  In  the  reports  made  to  Government  on  the  subject, 
it  appeared  that  the  roots  had  been  eaten  through  wherever 
they  obstructed  the  runs  of  the  mice.  Various  plans  were 
devised  for  their  destruction  :  traps  were  set,  poison  laid, 
and  cats  turned  out,  but  nothing  appeared  to  lessen  their 
number.  It  was  at  last  suggested  that  if  holes  were  dug, 
into  which  the  mice  might  be  enticed  or  fall,  their  destruc- 
tion might  be  effected.'  This  plan  was  adopted,  and  at 
intervals  of  about  twenty  yards  were  dug  holes,  eighteen  to 
twenty  inches  in  depth,  and  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the 
top,  so  that  the  animal  once  in  could  not  readily  get  out 
again.  In  these  holes  at  least  thirty  thousand  Voles  were 
caught  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  months ;  and  this 


232  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

without  taking  into  account  the  vast  number  that  was  eaten 
by  weasels,  stoats,  kites,  hawks,  owls,  magpies,  &c.,  which 
were  attracted  to  the  district. 


WATER    VOLE    (Arvicola  amphibius}. 
Plate  XX.  Fig.  2. 

The  Water  Vole,  the  largest  of  the  British  Voles,  is 
common  in  all  parts  of  Europe  and  in  Northern  and 
Central  Asia.  The  colour  of  the  British  species  is  a 
mixture  of  grey  and  brown.  Its  nose  is  more  snub,  the  ears 
shorter,  and  the  eyes  smaller  than  those  of  the  brown  rat. 
It  is  an  expert  swimmer  and  diver,  and  its  coat  is  as 
impervious  to  water  as  the  plumage  of  a  duck.  When 
alarmed,  it  dives  to  the  bottom,  where  it  can  remain  for 
a  minute  or  more  before  coming  up  to  the  surface  else- 
where to  breathe.  During  hard  winters,  when  its  usual 
food  of  aquatic  plants  is  not  available,  the  Water  Vole 
adopts  a  diet  of  bark,  to  satisfy  which  it  works  much 
injury  in  osier  plantations.  It  will  also  raid  the  '  buries  '  of 
turnips,  mangolds,  and  potatoes  in  fields  near  the  river- 
banks.  But  the  animal  is  not  so  voracious  as  the  common 
rat,  and  it  is  also  far  less  prolific.  Though  English  streams 
are  seldom,  if  ever,  without  the  Water  Vole,  the  animal  is 
not  found  in  Ireland. 

MUSQUASH   (Fiber  zibethicus}. 
Coloured  Plate  XIV.  Fig.  3. 

The  Musquash,  Musk  Rat,  or  Ondatra,  the  largest  of  the 
Voles,  is  a  North  American  species.  Its  range  extends 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  from  the  Arctic  regions 
as  far  South  as  Texas.  It  is  a  solidly  built  animal  of  a  foot 
in  length,  with  a  tail  of  ten  inches.  It  presents  marked 
differences  from  the  true  Vole  in  more  than  its  size. 
Besides  being  longer  in  proportion,  the  tail  is  compressed, 
and  scales  almost  wholly  replace  the  hair.  The  hind  feet 
are  partially  webbed.  The  head  is  remarkably  wide,  and 


THE   HAMSTER  233 

there  is  no  apparent  neck.  The  animal  is  furred  to  its 
nostrils,  its  coat  being  chiefly  blackish-brown  with  grey  on 
the  under  parts,  and  in  texture  it  is  soft  and  glossy  like  that 
of  the  beaver.  In  its  thick-set  form  and  not  a  few  of  its 
instincts  the  Musquash  resembles  the  last-named  animal, 
with  which  at  one  time  it  was  supposed  to  be  closely  allied. 

The  Musk  Rat,  so  called  from  its  musky  odour,  is  a  well- 
equipped  aquatic  animal.  Water  plants  form  a  great  part 
of  its  food,  varied  with  fish  and  fresh-water  mussels.  The 
burrow  of  the  animal  is  always  in  the  bank  of  a  stream, 
with  numerous  passages,  whose  entrances  are  always  under 
water.  In  a  nest  in  the  burrow  as  many  as  five  to  nine 
young  ones  are  born  at  a  birth,  and  there  is  often  more 
than  one  litter  in  a  year. 

For  use  in  the  winter  the  animal  frequently  constructs 
a  dome-shaped  '  hut,'  either  upon  the  bank  of  a  river  or  in 
the  stream  itself  upon  a  mound  of  mud,  sufficient  to  raise 
it  above  the  water.  Though  some  writers  assert  that  these 
huts  are  comparable  to  the  lodges  of  the  beaver,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  the  winter  quarters  of  the  smaller  animal  are 
little  better  than  heaps  of  roots  and  other  vegetable  sub- 
stances. It  can  burrow  into  them  for  cover  and  warmth, 
and  can  at  the  same  time  satisfy  the  claims  of  an  appetite 
that  is  always  more  or  less  obtrusive. 

The  Musquash  is  hunted  for  its  fur,  which  is  useful 
but  not  particularly  valuable.  Twenty  years  ago  as  many 
as  four  million  skins  annually  marked  the  abundance  of  the 
animal  and  the  assiduity  of  the  trappers.  The  numbers  are 
now  very  considerably  smaller.  Notwithstanding  its  musky 
odour,  the  insipid  flesh  of  the  Musquash  is  a  constant  dish 
with  the  Indians  in  winter. 


HAMSTEE   (  Cricetus  frumentarius) . 
Coloured  Plate  XIV.  Fig.  6. 

The  Common  Hamster,  unknown  in  Britain,  is  found 
throughout  Central  and  Eastern  Europe,  and  in  Central  and 
Northern  Asia.  It  is  a  handsomely  coloured  animal  just 
under  a  foot  in  length,  with  a  tapering  hairy  tail  of 


234  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

two  and  a  half  inches.  Its  coat  is  brownish-yellow  on 
the  back,  the  under  parts  are  chiefly  black,  and  the  feet 
are  white  ;  but  in  different  regions  there  is  considerable 
variation  in  colour,  from  black  to  almost  pure  white. 

The  Hamster  is  perhaps  the  most  systematic  of  all  the 
burrowers.  Its  winter  quarters,  in  particular,  are  of  quite 
elaborate  construction.  The  spacious  dwelling-chamber  is 
one  or  even  two  yards  deep,  with  an  almost  vertical  hole 
for  an  entrance  and  a  gradually  ascending  tunnel  for 
an  outlet.  The  males  and  females  and  young  ones  use 
separate  burrows  as  they  do  separate  storehouses ;  of  these 
last  a  male  will  sometimes  construct  three  or  four.  Breed- 
ing twice  a  year,  with  families  of  six  to  eighteen,  in 
favourable  localities  the  Hamster  increases  rapidly  and 
works  immense  injury  to  crops. 

The  animal  is  by  no  means  a  vegetarian,  but  will  kill 
and  eat  smaller  animals,  including  those  of  its  own  kind. 
There  is  no  vegetable  substance  that  it  will  not  devour ; 
but  corn,  peas,  and  beans  are  chiefly  what  it  stores  up  for 
winter  use.  It  conveys  its  spoils  to  its  burrow  treasury 
in  its  cheek  pouches,  which  are  of  a  half-pint  capacity. 
The  injury  that  Hamsters  may  work  to  agriculturists  can 
be  easily  gauged  from  the  fact  that  a  single  animal  will 
hoard  a  couple  of  bushels  of  wheat,  and  of  beans  still  more. 

Hamsters  hibernate  from  October  to  at  least  the  end  of 
January.  When  they  awake  they  do  not  leave  the  burrow, 
but  for  some  weeks  subsist  upon  the  stores  they  accumu- 
lated during  the  previous  autumn.  Peasants  go  Hamster- 
hunting  in  the  winter,  the  net  results  of  which  consist 
of  skins  and  no  inconsiderable  quantity  of  hoarded  grain. 

LEMMING  (My odes  lemmus). 
Coloured  Plate  XIV.  Fig.  2. 

The  Lemming  is  another  Vole-like  animal,  about  six 
inches  in  length,  including  its  half-inch  tail.  It  is  an 
inhabitant  of  the  northern  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  the 
European  species  figured  in  the  illustration  being  the 
largest.  In  Scandinavia,  where  it  is  best  known,  it  abounds 


Plate   XIV. 


9.  Beaver 


THE  LEMMING  235 

in  the  mountains  beyond  the  belt  of  the  firs,  where  it  feeds 
upon  the  mountain  herbage,  roots,  &c.  Even  in  winter 
it  does  not  cease  its  activity,  but  burrows  under  the 
snow,  where  it  can  at  least  find  lichens. 

For  a  small  animal  the  Lemming  is  remarkably 
courageous,  not  hesitating  to  bite  at  the  legs  of  men  who 
approach  too  closely  to  its  burrows.  It  must  be  one  of 
the  most  prolific  of  the  Murines,  for  at  irregular  intervals 
of  ten  to  fifteen  years  the  creatures  descend  from  the 
mountains  literally  in  millions.  The  migration  may  be 
caused  by  an  unusual  multiplication  of  their  numbers,  a 
deficiency  of  food,  or  perhaps  by  an  instinctive  knowledge 
of  an  approaching  severe  winter.  Either  of  the  reasons 
is  only  surmise,  but  the  migration  itself  is  a  fact  that  the 
inhabitants  in  its  line  of  march  know  to  their  grief. 

The  hordes  of  Lemmings  move  chiefly  at  night  or  in 
early  morning,  and  no  obstacle  can  deter  them.  The 
herbage  in  their  course  is  licked  up  as  though  by  flame  ; 
growing  crops  disappear  with  heart-breaking  rapidity, 
corn-ricks  are  reduced  to  heaps  of  chaff.  They  swim  rivers 
and  lakes ;  they  swarm  through  towns,  filling  wells  and 
polluting  the  water,  so  that  frequently  after  the  visitation 
the  people  are  stricken  with  a  form  of  typhoid  called 
'  Lemming  fever.'  All  along  their  route  the  plague  of 
Rodents  is  accompanied  by  clouds  of  birds  and  hosts  of 
beasts,  which  prey  upon  them  without  ceasing,  and  the 
inhabitants  adopt  all  kinds  of  plans  to  lessen  their  numbers. 
But  on  and  on  the  countless  pilgrim  Lemmings  sweep 
over  the  land,  day  after  day  and  week  after  week,  until  they 
reach  the  coast.  This  is  inevitably  the  end  of  the  migration ; 
the  final  stage  is  always  either  the  Atlantic  or  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia.  The  already  lessened  host  unhesitatingly  plunges 
into  the  sea,  and  the  Scandinavians  know  that  the  costly 
scourge  is  at  an  end. 

In  olden  times  the  people  superstitiously  believed  that 
the  Lemmings  fell  from  the  clouds,  and  the  clergy  were 
called  on  to  exorcise  the  myriad-footed  demon.  The  Turks 
under  similar  circumstances  pin  their  faith  to  holy  water 
from  Mecca,  which  is  sprinkled  on  the  ground  in  the  hope 
that  it  will  abate  a  Vole  plague. 


236 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 


There  still  remain  many  species  of  Mouse-like  Rodents 
that  are  not  without  interest,  but  space  forbids  even  the 
bare  enumeration  of  more  than  a  few,  and  those  chiefly 
whose  distinguishing  characteristic  is  indicated  in  their 
name  : — 

The  Mole  Rat,  ranging  from  the  south-east  of  Europe  to 
Persia ;  the  Fish-eating  Rat  of  Peru,  with  its  webbed  and 
fringed  hind  feet ;  the  Naked  Sand  Rat  of  Somaliland, 
about  the  size  of  a  mouse  and  much  resembling  a  tiny, 
hairless,  but  lively  puppy;  and  the  Spiny  Mouse  (Plate 
XXV.  Fig.  i)  of  Syria  and  East  Africa,  which  is  some- 
thing like  a  diminutive  hedgehog.  The  Kangaroo  Rat 
is  not  an  Australian  animal,  as  one  might  be  led  to  suppose, 
but  is  one  of  a  family  that  is  confined  to  the  New  World. 
Its  distinctive  features  are  the  possession  of  hair-lined  cheek 
pouches  and  kangaroo-like  hind  legs,  from  which  last  it  is 
but  a  natural  step  to  the  concluding  family  of  the  Murines. 


FAMILY  DIPODID.E  (JERBOAS). 

JERBOA  (Dipus  cegypticus). 
Coloured  Plate  XIV.  Fig.  8. 

The  Jerboa  is  of  rather  wide  habitat, 
for  it  is  found  in  the  South-east  of 
Europe,  Central  Asia,  India,  and 
Ceylon  ;  from  Syria  and  Arabia  it 
extends  to  Egypt  and  a  great  portion 
of  Africa.  It  is  a  small  Rodent,  almost 
bird-like  in  aspect,  six  to  eight  inches 
in  length,  with  a  tufted  tail  longer  than 
its  body.  Its  home  is  largely  in  desert 
regions,  and  the  fur  of  the  Jerboa 
is  generally  of  a  sand  colour.  The 
animal's  most  marked  feature  is  the 
disparity  in  length  between  its  fore  and 
hind  legs.  Only  three  toes  of  the  hind 
foot  are  well  developed,  but  the  sole  is  fitted  with  elastic 
pads.  The  hind  limbs  alone  are  used  for  progression,  an  d 


SKELETON  OF  THE 
JERBOA. 


THE   PORCUPINE  237 

it  skips  over  the  ground  with  such  astonishing  bounds  as  to 
seem  to  fly  instead  of  leap.  So  great  is  its  speed  that  it  is 
difficult  for  the  eye  to  follow  its  movements.  The  Jerboa 
feeds  upon  such  grasses  and  roots  as  arid  regions  afford. 
The  animals  dwell  in  companies,  excavating  burrows  with 
branching  galleries,  into  which  they  retreat  at  the  least 
alarm,  and  from  which  in  any  case  they  seldom  emerge 
except  at  dusk. 

CAPE   JUMPING   HARE   (Pedetes  caffer). 

Another  species  of  the  family  is  the  Cape  Jumping  Hare, 
very  similar  in  build  to  the  preceding  animal ;  but  the  tail 
is  bushy,  and  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet  are  provided  with 
hoof-like  nails.  In  size  and  colour  the  animal  is  much  like 
the  common  hare.  In  making  its  kangaroo-like  progress 
the  Jumping  Hare  will  clear  as  much  as  thirty  feet  at  a 
leap. 

PORCUPINE-LIKE  RODENTS. 

FAMILY   HYSTRICID^E    (PORCUPINES). 

PORCUPINE  (Hystrix  cristata). 

Coloured  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  3. 

These  rather  large  Rodents  are  extraordinary  animals,  as 
evidenced  by  their  French  name,  Porcupine,  the  literal 
meaning  of  which  is  '  spiky  pig.'  The  common  species  is 
nearly  three  feet  in  length.  The  head  and  fore  part  of  the 
body  are  clothed  with  short  spines  with  a  crest  of  longer 
ones ;  the  hinder  part  is  covered  with  sharp  pointed  quills, 
a  development  of  the  hair,  even  greater  than  that  in  the 
hedgehog. 

The  Common  Porcupine  is  a  native  of  Southern  Europe 
and  Northern  and  Western  Africa ;  and  there  are  various 
species  in  other  parts  of  Africa,  in  India,  and  in  the  New 
World.  At  one  time  it  was  believed  that  the  animal  possessed 
the  power  of  flinging  its  dart-like  quills  at  an  antagonist,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  leopards,  and  even  tigers,  have  been 


238  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

found  dead  with  Porcupine  quills  piercing  their  nostrils  and 
muzzles.  Getting  one's  '  back  up  '  is  an  expressive  term 
often  applied  to  human  beings  when  labouring  under  great 
irritation.  When  the  Porcupine  is  in  its  normally  placid 
humour  the  quills  lie  smoothly  along  its  back  ;  but  when  it 
is  attacked  it  erects  its  panoply  of  spines  and  runs  backward 
against  its  foe.  The  strangely  clothed  Rodent  sheds  its 
quills  periodically,  and  some  of  them  are  always  more  or 
less  loose ;  and  when  they  pierce  an  enemy's  skin  they 
remain  there.  Casual  observation  would  lead  one  to 
suppose  that  such  a  weapon  would  not  seriously  injure  a 
leopard,  and  in  reality  if  the  quill  were  withdrawn  the  great 
feline  would  think  little  of  the  wound.  But  try  as  it  will  the 
animal  cannot  get  rid  of  the  dart,  for  it  carries  projections 
which  not  only  foil  all  efforts  to  remove  it,  but  assist  it  to 
work  its  way  further  and  further  into  the  tissues,  until 
inflammation  sets  in  and  the  animal  dies  of  hunger.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  one  of  the  large  carnivores  is  in  little  danger 
of  meeting  with  such  a  fate,  for  one  stroke  of  the  paw  upon 
the  head  would  effectually  dispose  of  the  Porcupine,  even 
before  it  could  roll  itself  up  into  a  ball  for  protection. 

The  Porcupine  is  a  nocturnal  animal  living  in  a  burrow, 
which  it  excavates  with  its  long  and  powerful  claws,  and 
wherein  it  lies  in  winter  in  a  torpid  state.  Roots  are  its 
staple  food.  The  animal  is  not  so  clumsy  as  its  appearance 
would  seem  to  indicate.  It  is  as  quick  on  its  feet  as  it  is 
sharp  of  eye ;  and  three  or  four  natives  armed  with  spears 
can  rarely  despatch  the  animal  without  their  bare  legs 
showing  traces  of  its  swift  offensive  movements.  Dogs  are 
usually  trained  to  hunt  the  Porcupine,  and  their  concerted 
movements  speedily  bring  about  its  undoing.  While  the 
baited  Rodent  is  endeavouring  to  injure  its  foes  on  its 
flanks  and  rear,  one  of  the  dogs  will  dart  at  its  defenceless 
head  and  disable  it  by  a  single  bite. 

Unlike  those  of  the  Old,  the  New  World  Porcupines  are 
tree-climbers,  various  species  of  which  range  over  the 
greater  part  of  America  that  lies  between  Mexico  and 
Paraguay.  They  usually  possess  a  partly  prehensile  tail. 

The  Urson  or  Canadian  Porcupine  (Erithizon  dorsatus), 
Plate  XXV.  Fig.  2,  is  the  only  species  found  so  far  North, 


PLATE  XXIV. 


i.     DORMICE. 

(See  page  226) 


2.     BLACK    RAT. 

(See  page  227) 


3.     CHIPMUNK. 
(See  page  216) 

(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


PLATE  XXV 


i.     SPINY    MOUSE. 
(See  page  236) 


2.     TREE    PORCUPINE.  3.     V1SCACHA. 

(See  pane  238)  (See  page  240) 

(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


THE  CHINCHILLA  239 

but  its  habitat  includes  practically  the  whole  of  the  United 
States.  Indians  call  it  the  Cawquaw.  Though  it  lacks  a 
prehensile  tail,  it  is  an  adept  at  climbing,  stripping  trees 
quite  bare  of  the  leaves,  especially  hemlocks,  of  which  it  is 
particularly  fond.  The  animal  does  not  hibernate,  but  in 
winter  lives  upon  the  bark  of  young  trees.  A  single  Porcu- 
pine will  thus  be  responsible  for  the  destruction  of  hundreds 
of  trees  between  autumn  and  spring. 

The  Urson  is  the  creature  which  furnishes  the  quills  with 
which  the  Indian  squaws  embroider  moccasins,  leggings, 
pouches,  and  other  objects  of  use  or  ornament. 

Porcupine  quills  for  use  as  penholders,  fishing-floats,  &c., 
are  chiefly  the  product  of  the  European  species,  and  as  the 
animal  is  by  no  means  common,  the  quills  are  expensive. 


FAMILY  CHINCHILLID.E   (CHINCHILLAS). 

CHINCHILLA   (Chinchilla   lanigera). 

Coloured  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  2. 

The  Chinchilla  is  only  about  ten  inches  in  length, 
exclusive  of  its  tufted  tail,  which  is  four  or  five  inches 
long.  It  is  an  elegant,  active  little  creature,  with  its  hind 
legs  longer  than  the  anterior  pair.  It  was  at  one  time 
classed  with  the  jerboas.  In  size  and  general  form  it  is 
not  unlike  a  rabbit,  with  a  squirrel's  tail.  It  inhabits  the 
Andes  of  South  America  at  considerable  elevations,  as  do 
the  marmots  in  the  Alps. 

Chinchillas  live  in  large  companies  in  burrows,  where 
they  appear  to  breed  all  the  year  round,  which  helps  the 
creatures  to  keep  pace  with  the  demand  for  their  skins. 
The  fur  is  thick  and  exceedingly  soft,  of  a  delicate  grey 
on  the  back  and  greyish-white  beneath.  It  is  much 
admired  when  made  into  muffs,  boas,  cloak-linings  and 
other  wear  for  ladies.  Like  all  animals  whose  coats  are 
of  very  fine  texture,  the  Chinchilla  is  a  particularly 
clean  creature.  Its  agility  is  remarkable,  and  it  darts  up 
and  down  precipitous  walls  of  rock  with  the  utmost 
rapidity.  The  natives  in  hunting  the  little  creature  call 


24o  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

into  service  a  species  of  weasel,  which  enters  the  burrows 
and  drives  out  the  occupants. 

Of  several  somewhat  similar  species,  one,  the  Viscacha 
(Lagostomus  trichodactylus),  Plate  XXV.  Fig.  3,  is  a 
decidedly  more  marmot-like  creature.  It  is  a  plain 
dweller,  larger,  and  with  a  more  varied  coat  than  the 
Chinchilla  proper.  It  abounds  on  the  pampas  of  Southern 
Argentina,  where  it  has  a  better  choice  of  food  than  can 
be  found  at  high  altitudes.  Very  often  the  Viscachas  do 
much  damage  in  cultivated  fields.  While  a  party  is 
engaged  in  a  foray,  sentinels  are  posted  to  give  the  alarm 
at  the  least  appearance  of  danger,  and  in  a  flash  all  dart 
off  to  take  refuge  in  their  holes. 


FAMILY   DASYPROCTID^E   (AGOUTIS). 
AGOUTI  (Dasyprocta  aguti). 
Coloured  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  7. 

The  Agouti,  a  beautifully  formed  Rodent,  is  about  the 
size  of  a  rabbit ;  and  in  its  swift,  active,  watchful  move- 
ments it  is  not  at  all  unlike  that  animal.  The  Common, 
or  Golden,  Agouti  will  serve  as  an  example  of  any 
member  of  the  family,  which  all  more  or  less  resemble 
each  other  in  form  and  habit.  It  is  found  almost  through- 
out all  South  America,  but  its  home  is  chiefly  in  the  forests 
of  Brazil,  Guiana  and  Peru. 

The  animal  is  usually  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  in  length 
from  the  tip  of  its  nose  to  its  pointed  and  mere  stump 
of  a  tail,  and  its  compact  body  is  supported  on  four 
slender  legs.  Its  coat  consists  of  coarse  hair,  olive  brown 
in  colour,  the  longer  hairs  on  the  hind  quarters  merging 
into  a  shade  of  bright  orange. 

The  Agouti  is  nocturnal,  hiding  itself  by  day  in  the 
hollows  of  trees,  or  in  burrowed  cavities  two  or  three  feet 
deep  at  their  roots.  Often  a  score  or  more  of  the  animals 
will  live  peaceably  together,  frequently  wandering  miles 
from  home,  which  is  an  unusual  feature  with  most  burrow- 


THE  GUINEA  PIG  241 

ing  animals.  The  food  of  the  Agouti  consists  chiefly  of 
herbage,  roots,  and  fallen  fruits  ;  nuts  present  no  obstacle 
to  the  sharp  incisor  teeth.  When  the  animal  is  found 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  sugar  and  other  plantations  its 
raids  lead  to  considerable  damage,  which  has  caused 
planters  to  hunt  the  animal  more  than  otherwise  would 
have  been  the  case.  In  some  of  the  West  Indian  Islands 
it  has  been  almost  exterminated.  Young  Agoutis  are  no 
uncommon  pets  in  South  America. 


FAMILY   CAVIID^E    (GUINEA   PIGS). 
GUINEA   PIG  (Cavia  cobaya). 
Coloured  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  i. 

The  best  known  representative  of  the  Cavies  is  the 
animal  commonly  and  absurdly  called  the  Guinea  Pig ; 
the  correct  title  is  Guianan  Pig,  the  creature  being  a  native 
of  Guiana.  There  are  no  species  of  the  animal  in  Africa, 
so  that  '  Guinea '  is  distinctly  out  of  place.  The  Cavy  is 
a  tailless  animal,  six  or  seven  inches  in  length,  with  a  coat 
marked  by  its  variety  of  colouring,  irregular  patches  of 
orange  and  black  upon  a  white  ground  being  not  the  least 
beautiful.  The  Common  Guinea  Pig  is  doubtless  the 
descendant  of  a  wild  species  that  was  first  domesticated 
by  the  Incas  of  Peru,  and  introduced  into  Europe  by  the 
Dutch. 

The  Guinea  Pig  is  exceedingly  prolific,  producing  litters 
of  as  many  as  ten  young  ones  at  intervals  of  less  than 
three  months.  The  young  are  wonderfully  developed  at 
the  time  of  their  birth  ;  not  only  can  they  see,  but  they 
possess  their  second  set  of  teeth.  In  a  few  hours  they 
can  run  about,  and  before  forty-eight  hours  have  expired 
they  are  nibbling  not  only  soft  food,  but  corn.  Im- 
mense numbers  are  reared  in  Europe,  chiefly  as  pets 
for  children,  for  though  the  creature  displays  little  intelli- 
gence, nor  evinces  affection  for  its  owner,  it  is  very 
cleanly,  and  never  attempts  to  bite  those  who  handle  it. 

17 


242  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

CAP  YEAR  A   (Hydrochcerus  capybara}. 
Coloured  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  5. 

The  Capybara,  Carpincho,  or  Water-Hog  is  the  largest 
of  the  Rodents,  attaining  a  length  of  three  or  four  feet, 
and  possessing  a  very  thick  body,  short  legs,  and  long  feet. 
Its  solidity  is  shown  in  its  weight,  for  it  often  scales  very 
little  short  of  a  hundred  pounds,  or  very  nearly  twice  as 
much  as  a  very  large  beaver. 

This  big  Cavy  is  covered  with  long,  brown,  bristly  hair  ; 
its  tail  is  but  the  merest  stump.  It  is  found  chiefly  on 
the  banks  of  South  American  rivers,  and  its  half-webbed 
feet  fit  it  for  an  aquatic  life.  It  swims  and  dives  well, 
and,  very  much  like  the  otter,  it  can  catch  fish  to  add  to 
its  ordinary  vegetable  diet.  The  molar  teeth  of  the 
Capybara  markedly  resemble  those  of  the  elephant ;  they 
are  of  special  service  in  pulping  the  vegetable  food  upon 
which  it  feeds,  so  that  the  food  will  pass  down  its  remark- 
ably narrow  gullet,  which  is  so  small  that  it  will  barely 
allow  the  passage  of  a  crow  quill. 

The  Capybaras  frequently  go  about  in  herds  of  as  many 
as  twenty,  concealing  themselves  amid  the  reeds  and 
rushes  that  fringe  the  streams.  When  alarmed  they  take 
to  the  water,  only  just  showing  the  upper  parts  of  their 
heads.  They  are  listless,  almost  stupid  animals,  and  even 
the  female  and  its  young  of  half  a  dozen  indulge  in  no 
sportive  capers.  The  native  Indians  eat  the  flesh  of  the 
Capybara,  but  it  is  the  jaguar  that  keeps  down  the  numbers 
of  the  animal,  which  forms  a  large  part  of  the  ordinary 
food  of  the  '  American  tiger.' 

Sub-Order  2.— DOUBLE-TOOTHED    RODENTS 

FAMILY   LEPORID^E  (HARES   AND    RABBITS). 

HARE  (Lepus  Europceus). 
Coloured  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  6. 

The  Common  Hare,  widely  distributed  in  Europe,  is 
the  largest  and  the  most  perfect  type  of  the  whole  family. 


THE  HARE 


243 


An  animal  so  well-known  requires  little  description  save 
for  comparison  with  some  thirty  other  species,  most  of 
which  are  confined  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  In  the 
whole  of  South  America,  for  example,  there  is  but  the 
Brazilian  Hare. 

The  Common  Hare  is  about  two  feet  long  and  clothed 
in  reddish-brown  fur,  with  white  upon  the  chin  and  belly. 
The  tips  of  the  ears  are  blackish,  as  is  the  top  of  the  short 
tail.  The  hind  legs  are  longer  than  the  fore  limbs  and  the 
feet  are  hairy.  It  possesses  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the 
sub-order,  viz.,  four  incisors  instead  of  two  in  the  upper  jaw. 
A  full-sized  animal  will  weigh  eight  or  nine  pounds. 

All  the  members 
of  the  family  are 
markedly  shy  and 
timid ;  their  sole 
means  of  defence 
is  their  speed. 
The  ears  are 
longer  than  the 
head  and  adapted 
to  catch  the 
slightest  sound; 
the  eyes  are  large 
and  prominent, 
and  said  to  be 
open  even  when 

the  animal  is  asleep.  In  any  case  they  are  placed  so  that 
to  a  great  extent  the  animal  can  see  backwards  while  it 
is  on  the  run  forwards. 

The  Hare  prefers  dry  flat  grounds,  where  it  feeds  chiefly 
by  night,  during  the  day  lying  concealed  in  its  '  form/ 
It  is  a  strictly  herbivorous  animal,  its  food  consisting  of  a 
variety  of  herbage,  but  it  is  very  fond  of  young  corn,  and 
sometimes,  especially  in  winter,  ruins  plantations  of  young 
trees  by  gnawing  off  the  bark  as  high  as  it  can  reach. 

In  quite  early  times  the  Kings  of  England  enacted  game 
laws  which  assured  to  the  owners  of  land  certain  animals 
and  birds  found  thereon.  For  one  of  the  common  people 
to  be  detected  killing  a  deer  entailed  the  loss  of  the  culprit's 


JAWS  OF  THE  HARE. 


244  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

hand,  or  even  having  his  eyes  torn  out.  The  best  known 
'game'  are  pheasants,  partridges,  grouse,  and  Hares.  A 
Hare  may  only  be  killed  during  certain  months  by  a 
licensed  sportsman,  and  it  can  only  be  sold  by  a  licensed 
dealer. 

The  Hare  often  contributes  to  sport  in  other  ways. 
When  hunted  by  hounds,  though  the  animal  is  really 
speedier  than  the  fox,  it  does  not  display  such  good 
generalship,  usually  exhausting  itself  in  its  earlier  efforts ; 
but  it  frequently  displays  considerable  cunning.  It  will 
take  refuge  in  a  sheep-fold  and  hide  among  the  sheep ; 
it  will  run  up  one  side  of  a  hedge  and  down  the  other  ; 
it  will  swim  a  stream  ;  and  it  has  been  known  to  gain  the 
top  of  a  newly  cut  hedge  and  then  to  run  along  it  for  a 
considerable  distance  to  throw  its  pursuers  effectually  off 
the  scent. 

The  Hare  has  many  enemies.  No  dog  with  the  sense 
of  smell  can  resist  the  desire  to  track  it ;  the  weasel  tribe 
are  ever  on  the  watch  for  it ;  and  birds  of  prey  and 
snakes  leave  it  no  peace.  Man  always  hunts  it  assidu- 
ously. It  is  a  wonder  that  the  creature  can  contrive  to 
exist  in  any  numbers:  and  but  that  the  female  produces 
several  litters  in  the  course  of  the  year  and  that  the 
animal  is  so  strictly  preserved,  the  Hare  would  become 
exceedingly  scarce  in  Britain.  The  fecundity  of  the  animal 
has  been  tested  by  placing  a  male  and  two  females  in 
a  walled  enclosure.  At  the  end  of  twelve  months  there 
were  no  less  than  forty-seven  animals  awaiting  their 
freedom.  Out  in  the  open  the  net  result  would  have 
been  far  less,  for  these  particular  animals  were  freed 
from  the  attentions  of  their  natural  foes.  Young  Hares, 
which  are  called  '  leverets,'  are  born  clothed  and  with  their 
eyes  open. 

The  flesh  of  the  Hare,  which  is  dark  in  colour,  is 
greatly  esteemed  in  most  countries,  but  it  was  a  for- 
bidden animal  to  the  Jews  and  Mahometans.  The 
Mosaic  law  included  it  among  the  unclean  animals 
'  because  he  cheweth  the  cud,  but  divideth  not  the  hoof.' 
The  Hare  has  neither  the  teeth  nor  the  stomach  of  a 
ruminant ;  but  in  early  times  it  was  supposed  to  chew 


THE  RABBIT  245 

the  cud,  when  it  was  but  moving  its  jaws  about  in  the 
constant  endeavour  to  keep  down  the  growth  of  the 
incisor  teeth. 

Large  numbers  of  Hares  which  are  sold  in  our  home 
markets  are  in  reality  the  Mountain  Hare  (Lepus  timidus), 
which  abounds  in  North  America,  Northern  Asia,  and  the 
North  of  Europe,  especially  Russia,  from  which  we  import 
vast  numbers.  They  are  excellent  in  the  eating,  but  do 
not  realise  the  price  of  the  British  species. 

Hareskins  vary  in  colour  largely  according  to  the  climatic 
conditions ;  the  Northern  species  are  uniformly  lighter, 
grey  in  summer  and  almost  white  in  winter.  The  Arctic 
Hare  (Lepus  glacialis)  is  wholly  white,  except  for  the  cha- 
racteristic black-tipped  tail.  Until  silk  largely  displaced  it, 
the  fur  of  Hares  and  rabbits  was  of  particular  service 
in  the  manufacture  of  hats.  The  skins  are  converted 
into  caps,  cheap  muffs,  and  the  linings  of  cloaks  ;  whether 
the  fur  is  not  passed  off  as  the  product  of  more  fashionable 
animals  is  best  known  in  trade  circles. 


WILD   RABBIT   (Lepus  cuniculus). 
Coloured  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  4. 

The  Rabbit  is  less  in  size  than  the  hare,  smaller  in  the 
body  and  shorter  in  the  leg,  but  there  is  less  disparity  in 
length  between  the  hind  and  fore  limbs.  The  ears  of  the 
wild  Rabbit  are  only  about  as  long  as  the  head,  and  they 
are  tipped  with  black.  The  fur  is  greyish-brown,  becoming 
whitish  on  the  under  parts  ;  the  tail  is  rather  large  and  con- 
spicuous, brown  above  and  white  below,  and  it  is  usually 
held  upright.  Notwithstanding  their  marked  similarity, 
the  Rabbit  and  the  hare  are  very  distinct,  never  associating 
together  or  producing  a  mixed  race  of  descendants. 

The  Rabbit  is  an  inveterate  burrower,  preferring  to  take 
up  its  quarters  in  sandy  heaths  or  dry  grounds  covered 
with  bushes  ;  the  burrows  of  a  Rabbit  colony  form  a 
'  warren.'  The  animal  is  exceedingly  prolific,  commencing 
to  breed  when  it  is  but  six  months  old,  and  having  families 
several  times  a  year. 


246 


GNAWING  ANIMALS 


In  1850  a  gentleman  set  half  a  dozen  Rabbits  at  liberty 
in  New  South  Wales.  Long  before  the  end  of  the  century 
the  south-east  of  Australia  was  suffering  from  a  Rabbit 
plague.  Weasels  and  mongooses  were  introduced  to  check 
the  pest ;  but  while  they  had  little  or  no  effect  upon  the 
Rodents,  they  played  sad  havoc  in  the  hen-roosts  of  the 
colonists,  not  proving  a  cure,  but  rather  an  additional 
nuisance.  Attempts  to  exterminate  the  Rabbits  by  infecting 
them  with  disease  germs  had  to  be  abandoned,  because 
some  of  the  domestic  animals  were  liable  to  infection. 
Some  areas  had  to  be  given  over  altogether  to  the  Rabbit, 
and  everywhere  cultivated  tracts  had  to  be  protected  by 

rabbit  -  proof  wire 
fencing.  New  Zea- 
landers  met  with  the 
same  troublesome 
experience. 

Nowadays  we  hear 
less  of  the  Rabbit 
pest,  but  we  do  know 
that  New  South 
Wales  and  Victoria, 
in  a  single  year,  ex- 
port to  the  Mother 
Country  twenty 
millions  of  Rabbits, 
frozen  or  tinned, 

worth  nearly  half  a  million  sterling,  together  with  myriads 
of  skins  for  manufacturing  purposes.  New  Zealand  sends 
Rabbits  for  our  dinner  tables  to  the  value  of  a  quarter  of  a 
million  pounds,  as  well  as  immense  quantities  of  skins.  It 
is  not  always  that  a  plague  can  be  turned  to  such  a  golden 
account. 

The  flesh  of  the  Rabbit  is  good  and  acceptable  food, 
and  enormous  quantities  come  into  the  British  market  in 
addition  to  the  supplies  of  the  home  animal.  The  sandy 
shores  of  Ostend,  for  example,  afford  a  fine  breeding- 
ground  for  a  large-sized  variety,  which  is  exported  to 
England  at  the  rate  of  several  hundreds  of  tons  per  week. 
Rabbit  skins  are  of  great  commercial  value,  for  they  can 


SKELETON   OF  THE   RABBIT. 
(About  one-sixth  natural  size.) 


THE  RABBIT  247 

be  converted  into  all  kinds  of  warm  and  cheap  clothing. 
Vast  quantities  of  skins  are  stripped  of  their  fur,  which  is 
mixed  up  with  some  sticky  substance  into  a  glutinous  mass, 
and  then  pressed  into  felt. 

TAME    BABBIT. 

Of  the  tame  Rabbit  there  are  at  least  a  dozen  well-recog- 
nised varieties,  which  were  probably  derived  from  as  many 
different  countries.  They  vary  considerably  in  colour, 
which  is  a  common  feature  in  animals  that  have  been 
called  from  a  wild  state  to  lead  an  artificial  life. 

One  of  the  hardiest  and  strongest  of  fancy  Rabbits  is  the 
Dutch — a  variety  which,  notwithstanding  its  small  size,  is 
greatly  admired.  In  what  is  considered  a  perfectly  coloured 
animal  the  fore  part  of  the  body  is  white,  while  the  hinder 
part  may  be  black,  grey  or  blue,  &c.  No  dark  hairs  should 
encroach  upon  the  white,  and  no  light  hairs  should  show 
upon  the  coloured  part.  The  head  and  ears  are  dark ;  the 
face  is  marked  with  a  white  blaze ;  and  the  feet  and  tail 
are  white. 

The  Angora,  looking  more  like  a  ball  of  fluff  than  any- 
thing else,  is  one  of  the  daintiest  of  Rabbits.  The  head  is 
broad  and  massive  ;  the  creature's  eyes  are  pink ;  and  the 
ears  are  small  and  well  tufted.  The  beautiful,  silky  white 
coat  needs  to  be  parted  along  the  back  and  brushed 
downwards  on  either  side,  to  prevent  the  fur  becoming 
tangled. 

A  prime  favourite  with  fanciers  is  the  Lop,  whose  chief 
point  is  its  tremendous  ears.  Show  animals  often  have  ears 
that  drop  evenly  on  either  side  of  the  head,  and  measuring 
twenty  inches  from  the  tip  of  one  ear  to  the  extremity  of 
the  other ;  the  width  of  an  ear  will  not  be  less  than  four 
and  a  half  inches.  In  colour  Lops  are  usually  some  shade 
of  fawn,  bright  orange  fawn  being  the  most  popular.  A 
full-grown  buck  of  this  variety  will  weigh  quite  twelve 
pounds. 

The  Himalayan  has  a  soft,  white,  glossy  coat,  with  the 
nose,  ears,  feet  and  tail,  black.  The  small  ears  are  erect. 
The  ideal  life  for  this  variety  is  in  a  warren,  where  it  retains 


248  GNAWING  ANIMALS 

the  spotlessness  of  its  white  coat  far  more  perfectly  than 
when  it  is  cooped  up  in  a  hutch. 

The  Flemish  Giant  will  weigh  anything  up  to  eighteen 
pounds.  It  has  a  big  head,  a  large  dewlap  and  sturdy  legs. 
The  fur,  soft  and  standing  out,  gives  the  rabbit  an  appearance 
larger  than  it  really  is.  Usually  the  colour  is  steel  grey 
interspersed  with  black-tipped  hairs. 

PIKA. 

The  Pikas  form  the  second  family  of  the  Double-toothed 
Rodents.  They  are  often  called  tailless-  hares.  One  species 
is  found  in  North  America,  and  several  inhabit  the  Himalaya 
and  neighbouring  regions  ;  but  the  best  known  is  the  Sibe- 
rian Pika  (Lagomys  alpinus),  which  extends  into  Eastern 
Europe.  It  is  rather  a  pretty  little  Rodent,  smaller  than  a 
rabbit.  In  habits  it  much  resembles  the  marmot,  living  in 
burrows,  the  entrances  to  which  may  sometimes  be  counted 
by  the  thousand.  When  only  in  pairs  or  small  parties  they 
sometimes  occupy  the  crevices  of  rocks.  Inhabiting  ele- 
vated, cold,  and  arid  regions,  which  are  under  deep  snow 
for  several  months  in  the  year,  the  Pika  does  not  hibernate, 
but  stores  up  food  for  winter  use.  The  animal  is  not  on  the 
list  of  the  Siberian  fur-hunters,  who  content  themselves  with 
using  the  creature's  winter  store  of  dried  grasses,  roots,  &c., 
as  provender  for  their  horses.  The  Pika,  however,  is  not 
short  of  enemies,  for  various  wild  animals  of  the  cat  and 
dog  tribes,  together  with  the  eagle,  falcon,  and  owl,  cease- 
lessly prey  upon  it. 


Chapter  IX 

ORDER  VI.— UNGULATA 
(HOOFED   ANIMALS) 

SUB-ORDER  I.— HYRACOIDEA 

SUB-ORDER   2.— PROBOSCIDEA    (PROBOSCIS 
BEARERS) 

SUB-ORDER    3.— PERISSODACTYLA    (ODD- 
TOED  ANIMALS) 


General  description  of  the  Ungulata  — 
Sub-order  i.  Hyracoidea  —  Syrian  Hyrax  — 
Sub-order  2.  Proboscidea  —  Elephant  —  Sub- 
order 3.  Perissodactyla — General  description 
of  Rhinoceros  family — Indian  Rhinoceros — 
Other  Asiatic  species — African  Rhinoceros — 
Tapirs — Family  Equidae  :  Horse — Wild  Ass 
— Domestic  Ass — Zebra — Quagga. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Order  VI. — Ungulata 
(Hoofed  Animals) 

IT  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  importance  of  this 
order,  if  only  because  all  the  domestic  animals,  which 
are  used  as  food,  are  Ungulates.  Among  the  preceding 
animals  many  have  been  described  as  eatable,  but  it  is  safe 
to  assert  that  the  ordinary  reader,  except  in  the  case  of  hare 
and  rabbit,  has  never  partaken  of  the  flesh  of  any  one  of 
them.  Native  trappers  and  even  white  hunters  will  cook 
the  best  portions  of  an  animal  which  they  have  killed,  chiefly 
because  no  better  flesh  is  available;  and  always  in  thinly 
peopled  countries  the  natives  largely  supply  the  family  larder 
with  the  flesh  of  animals  that  are  found  in  their  particular 
region.  But  civilised  man,  and  even  the  savage  more  often 
than  not  follows  his  example,  rears  vast  numbers  of  cattle, 
sheep,  goats,  and  pigs,  wherewith  to  meet  the  demand  for 
flesh,  which  forms  an  important  part  of  the  daily  food. 

The  Ungulates,  which  are  all  vegetable  feeders  except 
the  pig  and  the  peccary,  include  the  largest  of  all  the 
mammals,  save  only  the  whale  and  the  sea  elephant.  All 
the  '  clean  animals '  belong  to  the  order,  i.e.,  those  which 
'  chew  the  cud  and  divide  the  hoof.'  So  do  some  of 
the  animals  which  were  '  unclean '  under  the  Jewish  law, 
but  since  we  have  been  liberated  from  the  Mosaic  law  by 
Him  who  '  cleansed  all  meats/  they  are  nearly  as  useful  to 
us  as  the  clean  animals.  Such  are  the  swine,  the  horse, 
the  ass,  &c. 

The  name  Ungulata  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word 

251 


252  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

ungula,  which  signifies  a  nail,  claw,  or  hoof.  These 
animals  fall  rather  easily  into  various  smaller  groups  or 
sub-orders. 

Sub-Order  i.— HYRACOIDEA 

FAMILY   HYRACIDjE. 
SYRIAN  HYRAX  (Hyrax  syriacus}. 
Coloured  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  8. 

The  Hyrax  is  a  remarkable  little  mammal  that  has  greatly 
puzzled  zoologists.  It  was  formerly  accounted  one  of  the 
Rodents,  and  in  its  small  size,  thick  fur  and  general  appear- 
ance, it  appeared  to  be  well  qualified  for  the  position.  It 
is,  however,  so  nearly  related  to  the  Pachyderms,  or  thick- 
skinned  animals,  that  some  naturalists  would  unite  it  with 
the  elephant  in  a  single  order  of  their  own. 

Place  a  Hyrax  and  an  elephant  side  by  side  and  appa- 
rently no  two  animals  could  less  resemble  each  other. 
The  Hyrax,  in  size  and  coat  and  toes,  greatly  features  the 
rabbit ;  and  it  lives  among  the  rocks,  flying  about  with 
the  agility  of  a  squirrel  in  a  tree.  Indeed,  there  are  some 
species  that  are  tree-dwellers. 

Yet  upon  examination  we  find  that  the  toes  of  the 
animal  are  little  hoofs,  united  by  skin  to  the  very  nail,  as  in 
the  elephant  and  rhinoceros.  The  teeth  are  of  the  hippo- 
potamus type.  Cuvier  said  that  excepting  for  the  horns  the 
Hyrax  is  '  a  rhinoceros  in  miniature.' 

The  Syrian  Hyrax  is  the  '  coney '  of  the  Bible,  the  little 
animal  who  is  '  exceeding  wise '  though  a  '  feeble  folk/ 
It  exhibits  wisdom  in  a  wariness  that  makes  it  a  matter  of 
difficulty  to  catch  it,  even  when  it  leaves  the  rocky  clefts 
in  which  it  makes  its  home,  and  with  which  its  colour  so 
agrees  as, to  make  it  not  easy  to  detect  it.  But  it  does 
not  chew  the  cud,  as  the  Jews  believed,  a  mistake  that  was 
repeated  by  the  traveller  Bruce  in  much  later  times. 

There  are  over  a  dozen  species  in  addition  to  the  one 
above.  The  Cape  Hyrax  (Hyrax  capensis)  is  well  known  in 
South  Africa,  where  the  Dutch  colonists  called  it  the 


THE  ELEPHANT  253 

Klip-das  or  Rock  Badger.  Similar  species  are  found  in 
Abyssinia,  but  in  East  and  West  Africa  are  Tree  Hyraces, 
whose  habits  are  entirely  arboreal. 


Sub-Order  2.— PROBOSCIDEA 
(PROBOSCIS   BEARERS) 

FAMILY   ELEPHANTID^:   (ELEPHANTS). 

AFRICAN   ELEPHANT. 
Coloured  Plate  XV.  Fig.  2. 

INDIAN  ELEPHANT. 
Plate  XXVI.  Fig.  2. 

The   Elephant,  the  largest  of  the  land  mammals,  is  at 
once   distinguished  by  its  size,  even  if  it  did  not  possess 


SKELETON  OF  THE  INDIAN  ELEPHANT. 

various  other   marked  characteristics  that  render  it  prac- 
tically unique  in  the  animal  world. 


254  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

The  nostrils  and  upper  lip  of  the  animal  are  drawn  out 
into  a  long,  flexible  proboscis,  at  the  end  of  which  are 
sensitive  processes  that  render  the  organ  of  more  use  to  its 
owner  than  is  the  prehensile  tail  to  the  spider  monkey. 
The  loss  of  the  monkey's  tail  would  only  rob  the  creature 
of  a  little  of  its  activity,  but  the  Elephant  would  die  if 
deprived  of  its  trunk.  It  cannot  eat  until  the  proboscis 
places  food  in  its  mouth  ;  it  cannot  satisfy  its  thirst  unless 
the  waterhose-like  member  takes  up  water  and  then  blows 
it  into  the  stomach.  In  short,  the  trunk  is  to  the  Elephant 
more  than  arms  and  hands  are  to  a  human  being.  An 
armless  man  in  extremity  could  eat  and  drink  in  the 
fashion  of  most  animals,  but  the  Elephant  would  be  de- 
barred by  the  formation  of  its  jaws. 

The  teeth  of  the  Elephant  are  no  less  remarkable.  It 
possesses  no  canines,  and  the  incisors,  limited  to  two  in 
the  upper  jaw,  are  often  enormously  developed  until  they 
assume  the  form  so  well  known  as  tusks;  they  are  deeply 
embedded  in  the  massive  skull,  and  as  the  tusk  is  worn 
away  at  the  tip,  fresh  tooth-matter  is  supplied  at  the  base. 

The  position  and  character  of  the  limbs  of  the  Elephant 
are  without  parallel  among  living  animals,  especially  in  their 
straightness  and  the  absence  of  angulation  at  the  joints.  A 
glance  at  the  skeleton  of  the  animal  will  show  that  the 
construction  of  the  legs  is  that  best  fitted  to  support  an 
enormous  weight,  which  would  prove  too  great  a  strain 
upon  angulated  limbs.  Yet,  notwithstanding  the  pillar-like 
strength  of  the  legs,  a  certain  amount  of  activity  is  retained. 
Few  persons  recognise  how  active  the  Elephant  really  is 
in  spite  of  its  bulk.  Shakespeare  believed  it  possessed  no 
joints  in  its  legs,  so  that  it  could  not  lie  down.  But  what 
are  the  true  facts  ?  The  animal  can  lie  down,  or  rise  again, 
as  easily  as  a  dog  ;  it  can  stand  on  its  hind  feet  alone,  or  on 
its  fore  feet  alone  ;  on  the  feet  of  the  right  or  the  left  side 
alternately  ;  and  it  can  even  stand  on  its  head.  In  kneeling, 
the  hind  feet  are  stretched  out  behind,  but  the  fore  feet 
extend  frontwards. 

There  are  only  two  existing  species  of  Elephant,  the 
Asiatic  (Elephas  indicus)  and  the  African  (Elephas  afri- 
canus) ;  but  in  far  distant  periods  when  the  world  was 


THE  ELEPHANT  255 

young,  various  colossal  species  roamed  over  the  greater 
part  of  Europe,  Northern  Asia,  and  America.  Fossil 
remains  of  the  extinct  Elephant,  usually  known  as  the 
Mammoth,  have  been  dug  up  in  England,  in  various  parts 
of  the  Continent,  and  have  been  dredged  up  from  the  bed 
of  the  North  Sea.  But  it  is  evident  that  Siberia  at  one  time 
possessed  as  many  Elephants,  as  ever  did  Africa  before  the 
incessant  hunting  for  ivory  caused  the  animal  to  disappear 
from  many  of  the  regions  where  it  once  roamed.  Embedded 
in  the  ice  in  the  north  of  Asia  have  been  found  the  remains 
of  Elephants  with  large  curving  tusks  far  exceeding  in  size 


SKELETON  OF  THE  MAMMOTH. 


those  of  the  present  day.  So  often  did  these  remains  come 
to  light  that  quite  a  large  trade  sprang  up  in  fossil  ivory, 
as  it  was  called.  In  one  year  (1873)  no  less  than  eleven 
hundred  tusks  were  imported  into  England ;  and  it  was 
calculated  that  within  a  score  of  years  the  remains  of  quite 
twenty  thousand  mammoths  must  have  been  discovered. 

The  mammoth  remains  are  a  puzzle  alike  to  the  naturalist 
and  the  geologist.  Some  of  the  frozen  monsters  have  con- 
sisted of  entire  animals,  with  the  flesh,  even  to  the  eyes,  so 
well  preserved  that  the  Yakut  dogs  devour  it  with  avidity  ; 
and  in  the  mouth  of  the  mammoth  are  sometimes  found 
the  very  twigs  upon  which  it  was  feeding  when  death  over- 


256 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


took  it.  It  is  possible  that  in  this  early  period,  lost  to 
history,  there  may  have  occurred  some  sudden  climatic 
revolution,  a  catastrophe  instantly  turning  at  least  moderate 
heat  into  intense  cold,  with  consequent  death  for  those 
animals  thus  hurled  into  a  terribly  uncongenial  environ- 
ment. 

Although  there  are  points  of  difference  between  them,  and 
the  African  and  Asiatic  species  can  be  distinguished  from 
each  other  at  a  glance,  in  most  respects  they  are  so  much  alike 
that  their  life-history  may  be  taken  at  the  same  time.  The 
ears  of  an  Elephant  are  at  once  a  sure  indication  of  its 
species  ;  those  of  the  African  animal  are  of  enormous  size, 
completely  covering  the  shoulders,  and  their  tips  falling 
below  the  neck,  while  the  ears  of  the  Indian  species  are 
comparatively  small.  The  African  Elephant  is  darker  in 
colour,  the  middle  of  its  back  is  flatter  or  hollower,  and  its 
hind  foot  only  possesses  three  nails  compared  to  the  four  of 
its  Asiatic  relative. 

The  molar  teeth  are  of  enormous  size,  and  so  deeply  sunk 
in  the  jaw  that  they  project  but  little  above  the  gum.  There 

are  twenty -four  of 
these  cheek  teeth,  six 
on  each  side  of  both 
upper  and  lower  jaws. 
They  are  never  all  in 
use,  however ;  only 
two  of  each  half 
dozen  are  ever  above 
the  gums  at  any  one 
time.  The  teeth  are 
not  solid,  but  consist 
of  a  number  of  plates 
set  side  by  side.  As 
may  be  seen  from  the 

illustration,  the  plates  of  the  African  Elephant,  when  viewed 
from  above,  present  a  distinctly  diamond-shaped  aspect, 
while  those  of  the  Asiatic  animal  are  narrow  ovals. 

The  average  size  of  the  African  Elephant  exceeds  that  of 
the  Asiatic,  but  in  both  species  the  males  in  particular  attain 
immense  proportions.  As  a  rule,  Asiatic  elephants  do  not 


INDIAN   LOWER  MOLAR. 


AFRICAN   LOWER  MOLAR. 


Plate  XV. 


1.  Rhinoceros 


2. African  Elephant 


THE  ELEPHANT  257 

exceed  nine  feet  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  with  a  length  of 
twenty-six  feet  from  the  tip  of  the  trunk  to  the  extremity  of 
the  tail  ;  but  in  the  Calcutta  Museum  is  the  skeleton  of  an 
animal  that  was  quite  twelve  feet  in  height.  Jumbo,  once  a 
favourite  at  the  Zoo,  was  eleven  and  a  half  feet  high  and 
weighed  six  and  a  half  tons.  He  was  of  the  African  species, 
and  as  he  was  reared  in  captivity  it  is  not  unreasonable  to 
suppose  that  wild  animals  may  exceed  even  those  enormous 
dimensions. 

It  is  a  doubtful  point  to  what  age  Elephants  attain  ;  but  in 
captivity  they  have  been  known  to  exceed  the  century,  and 
in  their  forest  homes,  with  the  advantage  of  strictly  natural 
food,  they  might  easily  live  half  as  long  again.  It  is  said 
that  the  remains  of  a  dead  Elephant  are  rarely  met  with, 
even  in  its  most  favourite  haunts.  It  is  suggested  that  the 
animal  retires  to  some  secret  spot  upon  its  approaching 
demise ;  but  no  ivory-hunter  has  even  been  known  to 
stumble  unawares  into  an  Elephant  cemetery  and  a  fortune 
at  the  same  time. 

The  two  species  differ  considerably  in  the  matter  of  tusks. 
In  the  African  Elephant  both  sexes  are  tusked,  the  only 
difference  being  that  the  tusks  of  the  male  are  larger  than 
those  of  the  female,  whereas  in  the  Asiatic  species  the  tusks 
of  the  females  never  more  than  barely  protrude  beyond  the 
jaws,  and  not  even  all  the  males  possess  tusks  worth  mention- 
ing. Tusks  vary  from  one  to  nine  or  even  ten  feet 
in  length,  with  a  girth  of  twenty-four  inches  at  the  base, 
and  weigh  anything  up  to  235  Ibs.  A  tusk  of  these  dimen- 
sions is  the  exception  and  not  the  rule.  Animal  for  animal, 
African  tusks  are  not  only  larger,  but  the  ivory  is  of  better 
quality. 

There  is  practically  no  difference  in  the  natural  habits  of 
the  Elephant,  whether  in  Asia  or  Africa.  It  is  mainly  a 
forest-dweller,  living  on  a  diet  of  roots,  twigs,  leaves,  young 
shoots,  fruits,  grass,  and  other  herbage.  It  prefers  to  feed 
from  trees,  from  the  branches  of  which  it  strips  the  leaves 
with  its  trunk  ;  in  eating  grasses  it  twists  its  trunk  round  a 
tussock  ;  fruits  are  picked  separately.  In  a  forest  the  animal 
will  work  extraordinary  damage.  Trees  that  possess  no  tap- 
roots are  levered  up  with  the  tusks  by  the  roots  in  order  to 

18 


258  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

bring  the  upper  branches  within  reach,  and  frequently  tusks 
are  broken  in  the  operation.  The  tusks  are  also  used  to  grub 
up  succulent  roots. 

Elephants  roam  about  in  herds  of  from  twenty  to  fifty, 
though  hunters  report  seeing  as  many  as  four  hundred  at 
a  time.  It  is  certain  that  nothing  like  such  numbers  could 
now  be  met  with  in  Asia,  and  in  Africa  it  would  be  unlikely, 
except  possibly  in  the  Kilimanjaro  region,  for  incessant 
ivory-hunting  has  practically  exterminated  the  Elephant  in 
wide  regions  where  it  formerly  abounded. 

The  eye  of  the  Elephant  is  exceedingly  small  for  an 
animal  of  its  size ;  especially  is  this  the  case  in  the  Asiatic 
species.  Sight  and  hearing  are  both  generally  defective. 
The  same  cannot  be  said  of  the  power  of  scent,  and  the 
hunter  experiences  great  difficulty  in  approaching  a  herd 
without  causing  the  animals  to  take  alarm.  In  disposition 
the  huge  creature  is  naturally  timid,  and  will  take  to 
flight  rather  than  come  to  the  attack.  Often  solitary  male 
Elephants  are  met ;  usually  they  have  been  expelled  from  a 
herd,  not  adopting  a  lonely  life  from  choice.  In  any  case 
they  are  almost  invariably  fierce  and  quarrelsome,  and  the 
particular  region  they  favour  is  best  avoided  by  human 
beings  who  have  no  desire  to  make  a  strenuous  fight  for 
life.  A  'rogue,'  as  a  solitary  bull  is  termed,  will  often  do 
immense  damage  to  the  crops  in  a  settled  district.  In 
fighting,  the  Elephant  endeavours  to  trample  on  its  victim 
with  its  feet  or  knees,  while  tuskers  will  pin  down  the 
object  of  their  rage  with  their  tusks. 

Through  no  fault  of  its  own,  the  African  Elephant  was 
rarely  tamed  and  domesticated,  except  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians in  their  wars  with  Rome.  In  the  second  Punic 
War  (B.C.  218-216)  Hannibal  traversed  Spain  and  Gaul 
with  nearly  forty  Elephants  trained  to  warfare,  finally  cross- 
ing the  Alps  and  inflicting  defeat  upon  the  Romans  at 
Ticinus.  The  Romans  used  the  Elephant  chiefly  for  the 
purposes  of  sport  in  the  arena,  and  it  is  told  of  Pompey 
that  at  one  great  festival  he  had  no  less  than  five  hundred 
lions  and  eighteen  Elephants  engaged  in  the  ring  at  one 
time.  In  those  days  the  Elephant  was  found  in  North 
Africa  ;  but  the  demand  for  ivory  and  the  necessities  of  the 


THE  ELEPHANT  259 

Roman  arenas  depleted  that  region,  and  the  animal  is  now 
never  found  North  of  the  Sahara. 

From  the  very  earliest  ages  of  civilisation  the  Asiatic 
Elephant  was  brought  under  the  dominion  of  man.  The 
Greeks,  when  they  invaded  Persia,  were  filled  with  terror 
at  the  Elephants  in  their  war-trappings,  but  in  later  periods 
made  use  of  the  animal  in  their  various  campaigns.  In 
India  the  Elephant  was  always  recognised  for  its  strength, 
courage,  sagacity,  and  generous  qualities.  Indian  princes 
estimated  their  power  by  the  number  of  Elephants  they 
possessed,  and  in  modern  times  British  generals  did  not 
hesitate  to  press  the  animal  into  service.  Powerful  and 
hardy,  no  better  beast  exists  for  carrying  war  stores  in 
regions  almost  inaccessible  to  ordinary  conveyance.  Bear- 
ing a  load  equal  to  that  of  sixteen  bullocks,  it  can  subsist 
upon  leaves,  whereas  horses  and  bullocks  require  large 
amounts  of  fodder  to  be  carried  for  their  sustenance.  The 
short,  broad  feet  of  the  Elephant  are  well  adapted  for  pro- 
gress in  mountainous  regions,  the  flat,  cushion-like  soles 
enabling  it  to  ascend  or  descend  steep  and  difficult  places 
with  great  facility. 

At  the  battle  of  Goojerat,  in  the  Punjab,  in  1849,  a 
body  of  Elephants  dragged  2o-pounder  field-pieces  to  the 
centre  of  the  lines,  where  they  were  able  to  work  such 
execution  as  completely  to  break  the  power  of  the  Sikhs. 
Even  in  very  recent  years  Elephants  have  transported 
mountain-guns  into  districts  that  were  otherwise  inac- 
cessible to  artillery. 

Useful  as  Elephants  may  be  in  warfare,  their  employment 
needs  circumspection,  as  Rajah  Sahib  found  to  his  cost 
when  he  tried  to  take  the  crumbling  walls  of  Arcot,  behind 
which  Robert  Clive  and  his  small  but  heroic  force  were 
playing  the  desperate  game  of  Empire-making.  In  the 
forefront  of  his  attack  Rajah  placed  a  number  of  Elephants, 
wearing  heavy  iron  spiked  helmets  with  which  to  batter 
down  the  rotten  gates.  But  the  living  battering-rams  never 
reached  them ;  they  were  received  with  such  a  withering 
fire  that  the  Elephants  turned  tail  and  ran  through  their 
own  lines  with  disastrous  results. 

There  is  often  much  misunderstanding  concerning  the 


260 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


possibilities  of  the  usefulness  of  the  Elephant  to  man.  Its 
ordinary  pace  is  a  walk  ;  it  cannot  trot,  canter,  or  gallop, 
but  it  can  shuffle  along,  under  necessity,  at  a  rate  of  from 
six  to  eight  miles  an  hour.  As  its  maximum  stride  is  six 
and  a  half  feet,  a  seven  foot  ditch  stops  its  career  com- 
pletely. 

The  trunk  is  a  marvellous  organ  of  touch  and  smell,  its 
wonderful  mechanism  consisting  of  nearly  forty  thousand 
muscles  ;  but  it  does  not  possess  the  strength  that  is  often 

attributed  to  it. 
It  can,  by  means 
of  the  finger-like 
processes,  pick 
up  an  object 
as  small  as  a 
needle,  but  the 
animal  is  too 
sensible  of  the 
value  of  its 
trunk  to  attempt 
to  raise  heavy 
weights  with  it. 
In  dragging,  it 
will  hold  a  rope 
with  its  teeth  ; 
and  in  moving 
weighty  objects 

^  Always  pUSheS 
again  St  them 

with    the     head 

or  tusks.  In  harness,  of  course,  it  can  exert  enormous 
power. 

The  brain  cavity  of  the  Elephant's  skull  is  very  small, 
out  of  all  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  immense  creature  naturally  is  less  intelligent  than 
the  dog  ;  but  owing  to  its  docility  and  capability  of  receiv- 
ing instruction,  it  can  be  educated  to  render  a  variety  of 
services  to  man,  but  of  its  own  initiative  it  would  never 
make  itself  useful.  That  the  animal's  memory  is  very 
retentive  there  is  no  room  for  doubt  ;  it  will  remember  acts 


SECTION  OF  THE  SKULL  OF  THE  INDIAN   ELEPHANT. 

s,  Air  sinuses  ;  «,  Nostrils  ;  b,  Brain  ;  m,  Molar  ;  /,  Tusk. 


THE  ELEPHANT  261 

of  kindness  or  cruelty  for  quite  long  periods,  and  will 
return  good  or  ill  in  strict  accordance  with  the  treatment 
meted  out  to  itself. 

With  the  majority  of  wild  animals  there  is  usually  little 
hope  of  usefully  domesticating  them  unless  they  are  caught 
when  quite  young  ;  with  the  Elephant  it  is  different,  for 
most  of  them  are  not  captured  until  they  are  more  or  less 
mature.  Probably  the  chief  reason  for  this  lies  in  the  fact 
that  Elephants  in  captivity  comparatively  rarely  breed  ;  in 
any  case  the  young  are  born  singly,  at  rather  long  intervals, 
and  great  expense  is  incurred  in  their  rearing  before  they 
reach  an  age  to  render  their  services  useful. 

The  method  of  hunting  and  taming  the  wild  Elephant 
in  Asia  is  well  worth  description.  In  the  forest  where  the 
animals  are  known  to  exist  a  large  space  is  marked  out  and 
well  fenced  in  with  stakes.  The  enclosure,  called  a  corral, 
is  narrow  at  one  end  and  gradually  widens  until  it  takes 
in  a  considerable  extent  of  the  forest.  At  the  far  end  is 
a  long,  narrow  passage  leading  into  a  still  smaller  space 
with  a  stout  and  impenetrable  fence.  Hundreds  of  men, 
by  means  of  noises  and  the  kindling  of  fires  at  regular 
intervals,  drive  the  animals  into  the  wide  mouth  of  the 
staked-in  area,  and  then  one  by  one  they  are  urged  along 
until  they  reach  the  small  enclosure.  Here  two  specially 
trained  female  elephants  make  friends  with  the  captive, 
soothing  it  until  it  allows  itself  to  be  conducted  to  a 
tree,  to  which  it  is  bound  by  the  leg.  Within  the  space 
of  a  couple  of  weeks  the  wild  Elephant  is  reduced  to  a  state 
of  subjection;  it  is  stabled,  and  quickly  learns  to  recognise 
the  voice  of  its  keeper.  The  tame  Elephants  employed  in 
the  capture  of  their  wild  friends  are  called  Koomkies,  and 
they  exhibit  no  small  amount  of  sagacity  in  seeking  to 
domesticate  their  species.  A  Koomky  has  been  known  to 
go  into  the  forest  alone,  make  friends  with  a  male,  and  bind 
him  to  a  tree  without  assistance  ;  and  then  in  animal  glee 
fetch  her  owner  to  view  the  capture  which  she  had 
effected  for  him. 

The  African  Elephant  is  seldom  hunted  for  domestic 
purposes  :  its  flesh  and  ivory  are  the  main  objects  of  the 
hunter,  and  consequently  the  methods  employed  aim  at 


262  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

its  capture  without  trying  to  avoid  injury  to  the  animal, 
as  is  generally  the  case  in  Asia.  Pitfalls  are  placed  by  the 
natives  in  the  vicinity  of  Elephant  drinking-places,  artfully 
concealed  by  herbage  and  sprinkled  with  dung  to  give  a 
natural  effect.  As  soon  as  one  animal  crashes  into  a  pit 
the  rest  of  the  herd  will  usually  stampede,  and,  shaken  out 
of  their  caution,  other  Elephants  speedily  meet  with  a 
similar  fate.  The  pits  narrow  towards  the  bottom,  and  the 
more  the  huge  creature  struggles,  the  tighter  it  becomes 
wedged  in  the  hole,  to  which  the  hunter  comes  and 
despatches  his  victim  with  ease. 

The  Hamrans,  an  Abyssinian  tribe,  stealthily  follow  the 
tracks  of  an  animal  until  they  find  it  asleep,  or  listless,  as  it 
usually  is  about  mid-day.  Creeping  up  to  their  quarry,  they 
sever  its  trunk  with  one  blow  of  a  sword,  and  then  wait 
until  the  creature  sinks  from  loss  of  blood  before  finally 
despatching  it.  Sometimes  the  animal  is  rendered  helpless 
by  a  cut  at  the  sinews  of  the  hind  leg,  which  prevents  it 
seeking  safety  in  flight,  and  makes  it  an  easy  matter  to 
inflict  further  wounds  upon  it. 

Tracking  the  Elephant  by  its  spoor  is  not  a  difficult 
operation  in  open  country  or  even  in  a  well-forested  region ; 
but  when  it  frequents  tracts  of  dense  grass  and  reeds  that 
reach  above  the  animal's  back,  the  hunter  would  find  it  less 
easy  to  locate  the  quarry.  Unfortunately  for  the  Elephant, 
it  is  usually  accompanied  by  white  egrets,  which  feed  upon 
the  ticks  and  other  insects  that  infest  the  vast  expanse  of 
hide.  And  even  in  the  densest  grass  or  brake  the  presence 
of  Elephants  is  indicated  by  the  birds  fluttering  and  hover- 
ing over  their  huge  friends. 

Shooting  is  the  method  adopted  by  white  sportsmen  ;  but 
even  with  the  most  approved  weapons  the  chase  of  the 
Elephant  is  often  accompanied  by  hairbreadth  escapes. 
The  greatest  nerve  and  accuracy  are  required  by  the  hunter, 
for  if  a  shot  is  ineffective  the  wounded  animal  will  charge 
down  upon  him  with  ferocious  impetuosity.  To  be  able  to 
reach  the  brain  it  is  necessary  to  be  acquainted  with  the 
anatomy  of  the  Elephant's  skull,  for,  saving  such  points  as 
the  temple  at  right  angles  or  behind  the  ear,  there  is  no 
certainty.  A  bullet  will  often  pierce  the  forehead  of  the 


THE  ELEPHANT  263 

Asiatic   species,  but  the  skull  of  the  African  is   well-nigh 
impenetrable. 

Mr.  Burchell,  in  his  Travels,  relates  an  incident  well 
illustrating  the  danger  of  Elephant-hunting.  Carel  Krieger, 
a  fearless  hunter,  with  his  party,  closely  pursued  an  animal 
which  they  had  only  wounded.  The  infuriated  beast 
turned  round  and  charged  down  upon  the  person  who 
had  inflicted  the  injury.  Seizing  him  with  its  trunk,  the 
Elephant  raised  its  victim  on  high,  and  dashed  him 
with  terrific  force  to  the  ground.  The  maddened  beast 
then  literally  trampled  the  body  to  pieces,  finally  pounding 
it  until  nothing  remained  but  a  few  of  the  larger  bones. 

There  is  no  famous  hunter  of  modern  times,  even  when 
armed  with  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  the  gunmaker's 
art,  who  has  not  looked  death  squarely  in  the  face  when  in 
pursuit  of  the  Elephant.  Oswell,  when  chased  by  an  in- 
furiated beast,  was  jerked  from  his  saddle  by  the  thorny 
plants  through  which  he  madly  urged  his  horse.  Falling 
directly  in  the  Elephant's  path,  the  huge  creature  blundered 
right  over  the  fallen  hunter,  without  so  much  as  touching 
him. 

Mr.  F.  C.  Selous  once  experienced  a  few  moments  each 
of  which  was  punctuated  with  terrible  thrills.  The  charg- 
ing Elephant  drove  its  tusk  into  the  horse's  haunch,  over- 
turning steed  and  rider.  The  next  moment  the  hunter 
was  underneath  the  belly  of  the  Elephant,  which  probably 
thought  it  had  destroyed  its  enemy.  In  the  moment  of 
brief  respite  Selous  scrambled  out  between  the  animal's 
hind  legs,  secured  his  rifle,  and  with  a  deadly  shot  at  close 
quarters  brought  the  Elephant  down  where  it  stood.  Upon 
another  occasion  a  Zulu  who  accompanied  Selous  met 
with  a  terrible  fate.  When  racing  in  front  of  a  maddened 
animal  the  man  fell.  Before  he  could  rise  the  Elephant 
was  upon  him,  placing  its  foot  on  the  prostrate  figure, 
which  with  its  trunk  it  literally  tore  into  three  pieces. 

Mr.  A.  H.  Neumann  was  not  so  fortunate  as  Selous. 
At  a  critical  juncture,  when  he  was  charged  by  a  vicious 
wounded  Elephant,  his  rifle  refused  to  act.  In  a  moment 
he  was  thrown  down.  He  was  first  stabbed  through  the 
biceps  of  his  right  arm,  and  a  second  thrust  of  the  tusks 


264  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

caught  him  between  the  ribs.  At  the  same  time  the  animal 
was  pounding  his  chest  with  the  thick  part  of  its  trunk, 
crushing  in  his  already  wounded  ribs.  Fortunately  the 
beast,  which  was  a  female,  either  thought  he  was  dead,  or 
she  was  anxious  to  return  to  her  calf,  and  she  left  him  to 
recover  from  as  narrow  an  escape  as  can  well  be  con- 
ceived. 

Mr.  Bryden,  who  speaks  out  of  the  fulness  of  personal 
knowledge,  says:  'The  charge  of  an  Elephant  is,  as  even 
the  most  cool  and  self-reliant  hunter  is  fain  to  confess,  one 
of  the  most  nerve-shaking  experiences  that  any  man  can 
hope  to  go  through.  With  ears  spread  out  at  right  angles, 
like  a  pair  of  sails,  screaming  like  a  locomotive,  the  great 
pachyderm  comes  down  upon  his  disturber  at  thirty  miles 
an  hour.'  Fortunately  the  cool,  resourceful  hunter  knows 
that  a  well-directed  bullet  will  cause  the  blundering  beast  to 
swerve  out  of  its  path;  and  thus  the  whirlwind  of  flesh  is 
avoided  by,  perhaps,  only  a  few  inches. 

A  few  words  may  be  given  to  the  consideration  of  the 
future  of  the  African  Elephant,  which  in  all  ages  has  been 
hunted  for  the  sake  of  its  ivory.  The  average  weight  of 
cow  teeth  is  about  twenty-four  pounds  a  pair,  though  in 
exceptional  cases  they  may  weigh  from  twenty-four  to  thirty 
pounds  each.  The  finest  ivories  are  obtained  in  Central 
and  East  Equatorial  Africa,  where  the  male  tusks  average 
about  a  hundred  and  fifteen  pounds  apiece.  Exceptional 
specimens  range  much  bigger;  for  example,  Sir  Edmund 
Loder  possesses  a  fine  tusk  that  measures  9  feet  5  inches 
over  the  curve  and  weighs  184  Ibs.  Probably  the  finest 
tusks  known  came  from  East  Africa,  measuring  10  feet 
2  inches  and  10  feet  4  inches,  with  a  weight  of  224  Ibs.  and 
235  Ibs.  respectively.  They  were  sold  to  a  museum  in  the 
United  States  for  -£1,000. 

Mr.  Selous,  the  modern  Nimrod  without  compare,  shot 
seventy-eight  Elephants  in  the  years  1873-75,  when  he  was 
engaged  in  ivory-hunting  and  the  capture  of  natural  history 
specimens.  Upon  one  occasion  he  formed  one  of  a  party 
of  four  who  shot  twenty-one  Elephants  in  a  day,  and  once 
three  of  the  same  men  killed  nineteen  out  of  a  herd  of 
twenty-one.  Huge  bags  as  these  were,  they  could  not 


THE  ELEPHANT  265 

compare  with  the  feat  accomplished  by  three  Boers. 
Coming  up  with  a  troop  of  a  hundred  and  four  Elephants, 
they  caused  the  animals  to  stampede  into  a  marsh,  where 
their  heavy  bodies  became  helplessly  bogged.  During  the 
day  every  animal  was  slain,  a  piece  of  wanton  destruction 
in  which  neither  females  nor  calves  were  spared. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  year  1908  news  reached  Eng- 
land that  eight  thousand  Elephants  had  been  rounded  up 
in  the  Lado  region  by  hunters,  who  were  shooting  the 
males ;  and  that  at  Entebbe  two  hunters  had  obtained 
£5,000  worth  of  ivory  in  a  four  months'  trip.  Mr.  Selous 
promptly  ridiculed  the  report,  stating  that  the  largest  known 
herds  of  Elephants  only  reached  four  hundred,  and  even 
that  number  was  exceedingly  rare.  Ivory-hunters,  too,  were 
little  likely  to  prefer  bull  tusks,  which  realise  about  twelve 
shillings  a  pound,  to  cow  tusks,  which  fetch  very  nearly 
twice  as  much.  The  famous  hunter  declared  that  the 
Elephant  is  no  more  likely  to  become  extinct  in  Africa 
than  is  the  giraffe. 

Within  the  last  dozen  years  hunting  prospects  have 
undergone  a  great  change  in  Africa  and  many  other 
regions,  notably  India  and  North  America.  Laws  have 
been  enacted  for  the  preservation  of  big  game  that  are 
calculated  to  save  many  different  species  from  the 
extermination  that  was  rapidly  overtaking  them.  In  East 
Africa,  Uganda,  and  elsewhere  the  hunter  has  to  pay  a 
license  of  ^50,  and  even  then  his  season's  bag  is  limited  to 
two  bull  elephants,  two  rhinoceroses,  and  a  certain  number 
of  antelopes.  In  Burma  the  shooting  of  Elephants  is  very 
strictly  regulated.  Marauding  'rogues'  are  not  protected, 
and  may  be  shot  on  sight ;  but  for  shooting  an  Elephant 
of  good  character,  or  against  whom,  in  the  language  of  the 
police  court,  there  are  no  previous  convictions,  a  fine  of 
five  hundred  rupees  is  imposed. 

But  the  real  danger  of  extinction  comes  from  the  native 
rather  than  the  white  man.  Armed  with  a  gun,  the  black 
man  in  Africa  is  daily  and  hourly  stealthily  hunting,  with  a 
patience  that  seldom  fails  to  be  rewarded ;  and  in  wild  and 
thinly  populated  regions  the  game  laws  are  exceedingly 
difficult  to  enforce. 


266  HOOFED  ANIMALS 


Sub-Order  3.— PERISSODACTYLA    (ODD-TOED 

ANIMALS) 

Perissodactyla  means  uneven-toed,  and  included  in  this 
sub-order  are  only  those  animals  that  have  an  odd  number 
of  toes  on  the  hind  foot.  There  are  very  few  species  of 
animals  possessing  this  characteristic — in  fact,  only  three 
families.  The  Equidae,  or  Horses,  have  only  one  developed 
digit  on  any  foot  ;  the  Rhinocerotidse,  or  Rhinoceroses, 
have  three  toes  on  each  foot ;  while  the  Tapiridae  have  four 
digits  on  the  front  feet,  but  meet  the  necessary  qualification 
for  inclusion  in  the  sub-order  by  having  only  three  toes  on 
the  hind  feet. 


FAMILY   RHINOCEROTID^   (RHINOCEROSES). 

The  Rhinoceros  family  cannot  well  be  mistaken  for  any 
other  group  of  animals.  The  word  '  Rhinoceros  '  is  formed 
from  two  Greek  words  signifying  '  horned-nose,'  and  the 
various  species  possess  at  least  one  horn,  while  some  have 
two.  The  horn  has  no  connection  with  the  skull ;  it  simply 
grows  from  the  skin,  from  which  it  may  be  cut  off  with 
a  sharp  knife  when  the  animal  has  been  recently  killed. 

The  family  is  restricted  to  the  Old  World  ;  several  species 
inhabit  India,  Burma,  and  through  the  Malay  Peninsula 
to  the  islands  of  Sumatra,  Java,  and  Borneo  ;  and  as  many 
if  not  more  are  found  in  Central  and  Southern  Africa. 
They  are  all  unwieldy  animals,  dull,  sulky,  and  irritable, 
but  seldom  attacking  man  until  provoked,  when  they  become 
exceedingly  dangerous  foes. 

The  figure  of  the  Rhinoceros  on  its  short,  stout  legs  is 
not  unlike  that  of  a  monstrous  hog,  with  a  big,  elongated 
head,  in  which  are  set  eyes  very  small  in  proportion.  The 
upper  lip  is  prolonged  and  is  generally  prehensile.  The 
animal  is  always  destitute  of  canine  teeth,  and  the  number 
of  upper  incisors  never  exceeds  two  pairs.  In  the  lower 
jaw  there  is  often  a  pair  of  large,  pointed,  almost  hori- 
zontal tusks,  with  a  pair  of  small  incisors  sometimes 
between  them. 


THE  RHINOCEROS  267 

The  hide  of  the  Rhinoceros  was  at  one  time  supposed  to 
be  bullet-proof.  Though  it  is  very  thick  and  solid,  the 
animal  may  be  shot  almost  as  easily  as  an  ox.  When  dried, 
the  skin  is  remarkably  hard,  and  in  India,  particularly,  it  is 
used  in  the  construction  of  shields.  The  skin,  dense  as 
it  is,  is  far  from  being  insensible,  for  the  animal  is  often 
infested  by  ticks,  the  stings  of  which  cause  the  Rhinoceros 
to  indulge  in  mud  baths  whenever  the  opportunity  arises. 
The  animal  is  mostly  nocturnal,  and  its  food  is  entirely 
vegetable. 

Notwithstanding      its     apparently     clumsy     shape,     the 


SKELETOM   OF  THE   RHIN7OCEROS. 

Rhinoceros  is  swift  of  foot  to  an  unexpected  degree. 
When  hunting  the  Keitloa  Rhinoceros  of  Africa,  Sir 
Samuel  Baker  found  it  difficult  to  overtake  the  animal, 
although  he  was  mounted  on  a  particularly  good  horse. 
The  Arab  hunters  assured  him  that  the  Keitloa  was  never 
killed  with  the  sword  except  after  a  long  and  fatiguing 
chase,  and  that  even  when  the  animal  was  brought  to  bay 
two  hunters  were  required — one  to  distract  its  attention, 
while  the  other  hamstrung  it  from  behind.  Even  then  the 
contest  is  not  always  ended,  for  the  Rhinoceros  can  run 
well  on  three  legs,  and  will  unexpectedly  turn  upon  its  foes 
just  when  it  appears  to  be  disabled. 


268  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

INDIAN  RHINOCEROS  (Rhinoceros  unicornis). 
Coloured  Plate  XV.  Fig.  i. 

The  Common  Indian  Rhinoceros  is  the  largest  of  the 
Asiatic  species,  and  has  a  wide  range  in  the  south-east  of 
the  continent  and  adjacent  large  islands.  Its  skin,  blackish 
grey  in  colour,  lies  in  a  series  of  folds,  not  unlike  armour 
plates  or  shields  in  appearance.  The  first  living  animal 
seen  in  Europe  was  one  that  was  sent  to  Emanuel,  King  of 
Portugal,  as  early  as  the  year  1513.  An  average  sized 
animal  has  a  height  of  about  five  and  a  half  feet  at  the 
shoulders,  with  the  body  over  eight  feet  in  length  from 
the  tip  of  the  snout  to  the  root  of  the  short-tufted  tail, 
which  is  about  thirty  inches  long. 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  head  of  the  Rhinoceros 
is  the  single  nasal  horn,  which  in  the  Indian  species  is 
usually  about  a  foot  in  length,  though  there  is  a  specimen 
in  the  British  Natural  History  Museum  that  is  nineteen  inches 
long.  Like  all  the  Asiatic  species,  it  possesses  incisor  teeth, 
a  single  pair  of  broad  ones  in  the  upper  jaw,  with  sometimes 
a  smaller  pair  behind  them.  The  normal  number  of  cheek 
teeth  is  seven  in  each  jaw ;  they  have  flat  planes,  which 
imply  that  the  mode  of  mastication  is  a  backwards  and 
forwards  motion. 

The  Indian  Rhinoceros  inhabits  the  swampy  grass 
jungles,  where  -grasses  grow  to  a  height  of  twenty  and 
thirty  feet.  In  these  forests  of  grasses  and  reeds  a  file  of  a 
dozen  elephants  will  walk  and  scarcely  give  a  sign  of  their 
passage.  The  Rhinoceroses  give  still  less  evidence  of  their 
movements,  since  they  largely  use  regular  runs,  like  those 
of  hares  and  rabbits  in  less  luxuriant  verdure. 

The  elephant  is  often  called  into  service  in  hunting 
the  Rhinoceros.  On  a  single  animal  the  hunter  tracks 
his  quarry  to  its  lair,  and  from  his  vantage  point  on  the 
elephant's  back  he  is  usually  able  to  shoot  with  telling 
effect.  Sometimes  a  string  of  elephants  is  used  to  beat 
the  Rhinoceros  out  of  the  jungle  into  more  open  ground. 
There  is  said  to  be  mutual  antagonism  between  the  elephant 
and  the  Rhinoceros,  and  certain  it  is  that  the  larger 


THE  RHINOCEROS  269 

animal  will  generally  retreat  without  hazarding  an 
encounter. 

The  capture  of  a  specimen  for  the  Zoological  Gardens 
exemplifies  the  fear  in  which  the  Rhinoceros  is  held  by 
the  elephant.  The  animal,  one  of  the  Hairy-eared  variety 
(Rhinoceros  lasotis)  of  Chittagong,  was  found  stuck  in  a 
quicksand,  and,  after  much  trouble,  was  secured  by  ropes 
and  tied  to  a  tree.  In  order  to  remove  her  eight  elephants 
were  brought  to  the  spot.  As  soon  as  they  saw  the 
Rhinoceros  they  betrayed  great  alarm,  and  when  urged 
towards  her  they  turned  round  and  ran  away.  However, 
at  last  they  were  induced  to  approach,  and  succeeded  in 
bringing  her  safely  to  the  stockade  which  had  been 
prepared  for  her. 

The  unrooted  horn  of  the  Rhinoceros  does  not  at  first 
sight  appear  to  be  a  very  formidable  weapon ;  but  from  its 
position,  together  with  the  lower  stature  of  the  Rhinoceros, 
it  gives  advantages  in  striking  the  under  parts  of  its  larger 
antagonist. 

Several  Europeans  mounted  on  elephants  came  up 
with  a  party  of  seven  Rhinoceroses,  led  by  a  large  and 
powerful  animal.  When  the  leader  charged  the  hunters, 
the  elephants  wheeled  round  and  received  the  blow  of  the 
Rhinoceros's  horn  on  the  hindquarters,  and  so  powerful 
was  the  concussion  that  in  more  than  one  instance  the 
elephant  and  its  rider  were  brought  to  the  ground.  In 
the  case  of  a  contest  with  smaller  animals  the  Rhinoceros 
more  often  employs  its  sharply-pointed  lower  tusks. 

Of  other  Asiatic  species,  there  is  the  Sumatran  Rhinoceros 
(Rhinoceros  siunatrensis),  which  has  at  least  two  distinguish- 
ing features.  Its  body  is  covered  with  brown  or  black  hair, 
and  it  possesses  two  horns,  the  hinder  and  smaller  one 
being  placed  between  the  eyes.  It  is  a  smaller  animal 
than  the  foregoing,  usually  rising  only  to  four  and  a  half 
feet  at  the  shoulder,  but  nevertheless  attaining  a  weight 
of  two  thousand  pounds.  The  Sumatran  Rhinoceros  is 
likely  to  suffer  extermination,  chiefly  on  account  of  the 
Chinese  demand  for  its  horns,  which  are  ground  into 
powder,  that  is  considered  a  sure  remedy  for  certain 
diseases. 


27o  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

The  Javan  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros  sondiacus)  is  consider- 
ably more  gentle,  and  is  not  infrequently  tamed  by  the 
Malays.  The  female  of  this  species  is  almost  invariably 
hornless. 

AFRICAN   RHINOCEROS. 

In  the  several  African  species  the  skin  flaps  are  absent, 
the  hide  being  practically  naked  and  smooth.  The 
commonest  of  them  is  the  Black  Rhinoceros  (Rhinoceros 
bicornis) ;  it  is  also  called  the  Borele  or  Rhinaster.  It  is 
a  double-horned  animal,  the  front  horn  measuring  from 
twenty-two  to  twenty-eight  inches,  while  the  back  horn 
is  usually  about  half  that  length.  The  grinding  teeth  are 
ridged,  for  mastication  calls  for  a  champing  movement, 
because  the  general  food  consists  of  twigs  rather  than 
gras's.  The  animal  is  widely  distributed,  ranging  through 
East  and  South  Africa,  from  Abyssinia  to  at  least  the 
borders  of  Cape  Colony. 

It  is  a  fierce,  quarrelsome,  and  active  animal,  with  its 
powers  of  scent  and  hearing  wonderfully  acute.  An 
experienced  hunter  asserted  that  he  would  rather  face 
fifty  wounded  lions  than  one  wounded  Borele.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  often  hunted  by  natives  who  would  not 
care  to  engage  in  the  chase  of  the  lion.  An  enraged  Borele 
has  been  known  to  charge  at  a  wagon,  striking  its  horns 
through  the  planks,  and  next  scattering  the  camp  fire  in  all 
directions.  This  last  is  the  more  remarkable,  in  that  wild 
beasts  are  generally  afraid  of  fire. 

The  capability  of  the  Rhinoceros  for  taking  care  of  itself 
was  once  witnessed  by  C.  ].  Andersonn.  He  had  wounded 
an  animal  severely,  but  had  been  unable  to  prevent  it  seek- 
ing cover  where  it  was  difficult  to  follow.  Eventually  the 
hunter  came  up  with  the  Rhinoceros,  only  to  find  the  par- 
tially disabled  animal  was  being  fiercely  attacked  by  a 
couple  of  lions.  They  mauled  and  lacerated  it  severely, 
but  in  the  end  the  Rhinoceros  beat  both  of  them  off. 
For  its  gallant  fight  the  hunter  would  have  liked  to  spare 
its  life,  but  it  was  wounded  to  the  death,  and  a  merciful 
ball  put  an  end  to  its  pain. 

The  Keitloa  (Rhinoceros  keitloa)  possesses  horns  of  nearly 


THE  RHINOCEROS  271 

the  same  length.  It  is  a  larger  animal  than  the  Borele,  and 
is  even  more  feared.  The  Mochuco,  or  Burchell's  Rhino- 
ceros (Rhinoceros  simus),  is  the  largest  of  the  group.  It 
stands  six  or  seven  feet  high  at  the  shoulder,  and  has  an 
extreme  length  of  sixteen  to  seventeen  feet.  Though  it  is 
only  a  slightly  paler  brown  than  other  species,  it  is  often 
called  the  White  Rhinoceros.  Fortunately,  it  is  not  a 
quarrelsome  animal,  for  the  front  horn  is  sometimes 
three  feet  in  length,  and  is  a  most  terrible  weapon.  One 
abnormal  specimen  in  the  British  Museum  is  fifty-six 
inches  long,  while  Colonel  W.  Gordon  Gumming  pos- 
sesses one  that  is  5  feet  2\  inches  in  length.  An 
English  traveller  was  once  nearly  killed  by  a  Mochuco. 
He  had  wounded  the  animal,  which,  instead  of  retreat- 
ing, walked  quietly  towards  its  mounted  enemy.  The 
horse  refused  to  stir,  and  when  the  Rhinoceros  charged, 
its  horn  passed  through  the  body  of  the  horse,  penetrated 
the  saddle  on  the  opposite  side,  and  bruised  the  leg  of  the 
rider.  The  force  of  the  impact  was  sufficient  to  toss  the 
horse  in  the  air,  turning  a  complete  somersault,  and  falling 
on  its  back.  Another  species,  the  Kabaoba  (Rhinoceros 
oswelli),  possesses  a  still  longer  horn.  When  firearms 
were  muzzle-loaders,  ramrods,  four  feet  in  length,  were 
frequently  cut  from  single  horns. 

Among  the  animals  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  there 
is  one  introduced  under  the  name  of  Reem,  or  Unicorn. 
Notwithstanding  some  difficulties  that  envelop  the  subject, 
it  is  thought  that  the  Rhinoceros  is  the  animal  intended. 
The  flesh  of  the  Rhinoceros  was  held  in  considerable 
esteem  by  the  earlier  white  settlers  of  South  Africa.  The 
Portuguese  on  the  East  Coast,  on  account  of  the  amphibious 
habits  of  the  animal,  were  permitted  by  their  priests  to  view 
the  animal  as  fish,  and  hence  during  Lent  they  partook  of 
its  flesh  with  an  easy  conscience. 

To  the  hunter,  apart  from  the  question  of  hides  and 
tusks,  there  is  an  indescribable  fascination  in  fetching  down 
an  animal  perhaps  a  ton  in  weight.  Between  the  years 
1840  and  1880  the  Black  Rhinoceros  was  shot  in  thousands. 
Two  men  bagged  no  less  than  fifty  upon  one  occasion 
in  a  single  excursion  ;  Oswell  and  a  companion  captured 


272 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


eighty-nine  in  a  season  ;  and  in  the  same  short  period  sixty 
fell  to  C.  ].  Andersonn's  gun  alone.  The  White  Rhinoceros 
is  on  the  verge  of  extinction  in  South  Africa,  but  here  and 
there  a  few  are  very  strictly  preserved.  Only  a  few  years 
ago  a  native  chief  was  heavily  fined  for  permitting  one  to 
be  killed  in  a  preserved  area.  In  Central  Africa,  however, 
there  is  little  fear  that  the  Rhinoceros  will  disappear  for 
many  long  years  to  come. 


FAMILY    TAPIRID^E    (TAPIRS). 

The  small  group  of  animals  which  are  called  Tapirs  look 
as  if  they  had  wandered  into  this  world  from  among  the 
extinct  animals  of  antediluvian  times.  Their  peculiar 
contour  cannot  be  mistaken.  The  smooth-skinned  hog- 
like  body,  with  a  pointed,  conical  head,  produced  into  a 
short,  flexible  proboscis,  seems  to  suggest  that  they  form 
a  link  with  the  elephant.  They  are  semi-aquatic  animals, 
living  in  the  neighbourhood  of  large  rivers.  They  spend 

much  time  in  the  water,  and 
are  said  to  be  able  to  walk 
along  the  bottom.  They  are 
mostly  nocturnal  in  habit, 
coming  out  of  their  retreats  at 
night  to  feed  on  leaves  and 
fruits.  The  elongated  snout  is 
of  particular  service  as  a  kind  of 
hook  in  pulling  down  boughs  or 
fruits.  In  disposition  the  ani- 
mal is  naturally  shy,  timid,  and 
inoffensive,  but  when  attacked 
it  will  fight  desperately.  The 

American  Tapirs  are  generally  of  a  dark  brown  colour ;  the 
Malayan  species  has  the  upper  part  of  the  body  white  from 
the  withers  to  the  tail,  with  the  remainder  of  the  body  nearly 
black.  It  looks  exactly  as  if  some  one  had  played  a  prac- 
tical joke  upon  it  with  a  whitewash  brush.  Strangely 
enough,  the  young  Tapirs,  until  they  are  five  or  six  months 
old,  are  marked  with  longitudinal,  fawn-coloured  stripes, 
and  rows  of  yellowish  spots  on  the  back  and  sides. 


FORE   (A)   AND   HIND   (fi)    FOOT 
OF  THE  TAPIR. 


PLATE  XXVI. 


i.     AMERICAN   TAPIR. 


2.     INDIAN   ELEPHANT. 

(See  page  253) 


(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


PLATE  XXVII. 


I.     FOALS.  2.     CART    HORSE. 

(See  page  274) 

(Photo  Pictorial  Agency.) 


THE  TAPIR  FAMILY  273 

AMERICAN    TAPIR   (Tapirus  americanus). 
Plate  XXVI.  Fig.  i. 

This  is  the  commonest  and  best  known  of  the  five  South 
American  species.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  the  forests  of 
Brazil  and  neighbouring  countries.  It  is  a  powerful 
animal,  five  feet  in  length,  with  a  massive  body  and  a 
thick,  muscular  neck,  which  is  surmounted  by  a  stiff 
mane.  It  leads  for  the  most  part  a  solitary  life,  amid 
the  gloom  of  the  forest,  through  which  it  makes  its  way, 
by  more  or  less  beaten  tracks,  to  its  usual  resorts  for  food 
and  water.  Inoffensive  and  gentle,  the  Tapir,  from  its 
enormous  strength  and  the  toughness  of  its  hide,  does 
not  fall  an  easy  prey  even  to  the  poisoned  arrows  of  the 
native  hunter.  By  means  of  the  earlier  firearms  it  was 
impossible  to  make  much  impression  on  its  stout  cover- 
ing. When  attacked,  the  first  thing  the  animal  does  is  to 
rush  to  the  river,  clearing  a  path  through  the  dense  under- 
growth by  sheer  weight  and  strength.  If  followed  to  the 
water  it  plunges  in,  where  it  seizes  the  attacking  dogs  and 
inflicts  the  most  dangerous  wounds.  The  jaguar  is  its  chief 
natural  enemy.  On  land  the  fierce  carnivore  finds  it 
difficult  to  make  an  impression  on  the  tough  hide,  and 
if  the  Tapir  can  only  contrive  to  shake  off  its  assailant 
and  reach  water,  the  jaguar  not  infrequently  loses  its  prey. 
Tapirs  in  the  neighbourhood  of  cultivated  land  work 
immense  damage  to  sugar-canes  and  melons,  and  the 
cacao-planter  in  particular  often  bewails  the  destruction  of 
his  young  plantations.  In  captivity  the  Tapir  will  modify 
its  vegetarian  diet,  becoming  practically  as  omnivorous  as 
the  common  swine. 

MALAYAN    TAPIR  (Tapirus  indicus). 
Coloured  Plate  XVII.  Fig.  4. 

The  Asiatic  Tapir  is  restricted  to  a  solitary  species  that  is 
found  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo.  It  is 
the  largest  of  the  group,  attaining  a  height  of  three  and  a 
half  feet,  and  a  length  of  eight  feet  from  the  tip  of  the  snout 


274  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

to  the  scarcely  perceptible  tail.  Like  its  American  con- 
geners, the  animal  is  of  an  exceedingly  retiring  disposition, 
but  it  can  easily  be  domesticated,  and  a  tame  Tapir  is  an 
ordinary  sight  in  a  native  village.  A  young  one,  when 
captured,  can  easily  be  led  by  the  hunter,  who  bores 
a  hole  in  the  side  of  the  snout,  through  which  he  passes 
a  cord. 

The  flesh  of  the  Tapir  is  coarse  and  dry  to  Europeans, 
but  the  South  American  Indians  consider  it  almost  as 
savoury  as  beef.  The  nape  of  the  neck  and  the  feet,  cooked 
to  a  jelly,  are  morsels  which  Lucullus  himself  might  have 
welcomed.  Much  the  same  thing  used  to  be  said  of  the  foot 
of  the  elephant,  whereas  in  reality  European  hunters  fail  to 
view  it  as  a  special  delicacy. 

FAMILY   EQUID^   (HORSES). 

In  this  family  are  the  Horses,  Asses,  and  Zebras,  the  solid- 
ungulated  animals  which  have  the  bones  of  their  toes 
enclosed  in  a  solid,  single  hoof.  Two  species  have  been 
domesticated  for  so  long  that  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to 
trace  their  natural  origin.  In  another  classification  the 
family  belongs  to  the  order  Pachydermata,  or  thick-skinned 
animals,  in  which  were  included  the  elephant,  hippopota- 
mus, swine,  rhinoceros,  tapir,  and  hyrax.  The  hair  on  the 
body  is  short  and  smooth,  with  the  mane  and  tail  usually 
long  and  bushy.  There  are  six  incisors  in  each  jaw ;  the 
molars  are  six  on  each  side,  above  and  below  ;  and  there 
are  two  canines  in  the  upper  and  the  same  number  in  the 
lower  jaw.  Many  characteristics  of  the  family  are  too  well 
known  to  call  for  lengthy  description,  while  the  most 
important  points  will  arise  in  the  consideration  of  each 
particular  species. 

HORSE  (Equus  caballus). 
Coloured  Plate  XVI.  Fig.  2,  Plate  XXVII. 

True  Horses  are  represented  by  one  common  and  well- 
established  species,  from  which  all  other  varieties  are 


Plate  XVI. 


l.Wild  Ass 


2.  Horse 


THE  HORSE 


275 


descended.  There  are  various  breeds,  each  with  its  own 
purely  artificial  distinctions,  such  as  differences  in  size  and 
colour,  and  even  in  shape,  but  nevertheless  possessing 
every  point  that  marks  the  true  Horse. 

If  the  reader  compare  the  skeleton  of  the  Horse  with  that 
of  the  elephant  or  any  other  animal  described  in  this 
chapter,  he  will  find  that  it  tells  its  own  story.  The 
expansive  chest  marks  the  possession  of  lungs  of  great 
size,  and,  therefore,  it  is  intended  for  endurance.  Speed  is 
denoted  in  the  length  of  limb  and  the  bold  projections  for 


SKELETON  OF  THE   HORSE. 


muscles  upon  the  hind  legs  ;  while  the  series  of  curves  into 
which  the  whole  structure  can  be  resolved  shows  the  design 
of  the  Creator  to  make  it  elastic  from  the  head  to  the  toes. 
Look  along  the  spine,  for  example,  and  you  will  see  that 
the  vertebral  processes  are  directed  backwards  from  the 
shoulder  nearly  to  the  centre  of  the  back.  Beginning  from 
the  hip-bone  the  processes  are  directed  forwards,  while 
those  in  the  centre  of  the  back  are  upright.  This  is  the 
spot  where  the  rider  is  best  seated  to  preserve  to  the  fullest 
extent  the  elasticity  of  the  structure. 


276  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

Looking  at  the  legs  of  a  Horse,  the  question  arises  what 
has  become  of  all  the  toes.  In  the  animals  which  divide 
the  hoof  there  are  apparently  only  two  toes  to  each  foot ; 
but  a  very  superficial  examination  shows  us  that  two  other 
toes  are  only  partly  developed,  and  are  absolutely  useless  as 
a  means  of  progression.  But  examine  the  foot  of  the  Horse, 
and  to  all  appearance  there  is  but  a  single  toe,  until  we  strip 
off  the  skin  as  far  as  the  knee  of  the  fore  limb  and  the  hock 
of  the  hind  leg. 

The  normal  number  of  digits  (i.e.,  fingers  and  toes)  is 
five ;  but  we  have  seen  how  various  bones  are  often 
extremely  modified.  The  thumb  of  the  fore  feet,  or  the 
great  toe  of  the  hind  feet,  is  invariably  the  first  in  which 
development  is  arrested,  and  the  others  are  modified 
according  to  the  needs  of  the  possessor.  What,  then,  is 
this  single  toe  of  the  Horse  ?  We  must  transport  ourselves 
to  the  Eocene  epoch  to  find  the  animal  termed  the 
Eohippus,  i.e.,  the  Dawn  of  the  Horse.  It  was  little 
more  than  the  size  of  a  fox  terrier,  with  four  complete 
toes  on  the  fore  feet,  and  the  rudiments  of  a  thumb  dis- 
tinctly marked  ;  on  the  hind  feet  were  three  toes.  In  the 
Miocene  period  the  thumb  disappears  altogether  and  the 
digits  are  still  more  reduced,  until  in  the  Pliocene, 
the  creature  had  greatly  increased  in  size,  and  the  digits, 
with  the  exception  of  the  third  and  fourth  (counting  the 
thumb  as  the  first),  were  fused  together  so  as  to  look  as  if 
they  were  a  single  bone. 

It  is  now  comparatively  easy  to  understand  the  con- 
struction of  the  foot  of  the  Horse,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. The  left-hand  figure  represents  the  fore-foot,  or,  as  it 
might  be  called,  the  hand.  Beginning  at  the  top,  we  see 
the  end  of  the  radius,  and  below  it  the  carpal  bones,  i.e., 
those  of  the  wrist.  One  projects  beyond  the  others,  and 
this  is  the  rudimentary  thumb.  Below  the  carpal  bones  is 
a  stout  and  straight  bone,  called  the  cannon  bone.  It  is 
not  a  single  bone,  but  is  composed  of  the  third  and  fourth 
metacarpals,  which  are  fused  together.  At  the  side  of  the 
cannon  bone  may  be  seen  a  slight,  elongated  bone,  with 
another  of  the  same  dimensions  on  the  opposite  side. 
These  are  the  second  and  fifth  metacarpals  (i.e.,  the  first  and 


THE  HORSE  277 

little  fingers),  and  are  of  no  practical  utility.  They  are 
called  the  splint  bones.  The  next  three  joints,  which  con- 
stitute the  pastern,  are  the  phalanges,  or  finger-joints  of  the 
third  and  fourth  fingers.  So  we  see  that  the  so-called  knee 


HAND  AND   FOOT  OF  THE   HORSE. 

of  the  Horse  is  its  wrist,  and  that  the  hand  begins  at  the 
end  of  the  radius. 

Passing  to  the  right-hand  figure,  which  represents  the 
hind  foot  of  the  Horse,  we  begin  at  the  top  with  the  end  of 
the  tibia,  which  corresponds  with  the  radius  of  the  fore 
limb.  Next  come  the  bones  of  the  ankle,  i.e.,  the  tarsal 
bones,  the  heel  bone  projecting  very  boldly,  so  as  to  give  a 


278 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


good  leverage  to  the  great  ligament  called  the  tendon  of 
Achilles.  Then  come  the  metatarsals  of  the  third  and 
fourth  toes  fused  together,  those  of  the  second  and  fifth 
being  represented  by  the  splint  bones,  and  lastly  come  the 
digits,  i.e.,  the  fingers  or  toes,  which  correspond  so  closely 
with  those  of  the  fore-foot  that  they  are  scarcely  distinguish- 
able from  each  other.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  foals  are 
sometimes  born  with  traces  of  as  many  as  four  toes,  some 

with  one  or  other  of  the  splint 
bones  enlarged  into  a  complete 
toe  with  a  hoof  at  the  end. 

So  the  reader  will  perceive  that 
the  Horse  walks  upon  the  tips  of 
the  third  and  fourth  fingers  of 
the  hand  and  the  corresponding 
toes  of  the  foot.  The  hoof  is 
beautifully  constructed,  built  up 
by  no  less  than  six  hundred  layers 
or  scales  of  three  different  kinds 
of  horn,  resulting  in  wonderful 
elasticity  to  fulfil  the  tasks  required 
of  it. 

The  hoof  of  the  Horse  in  a  wild 
state  grows  as  fast  as  it  wears,  but 
domesticated  animals  require  an 
iron  shoe  to  protect  the  foot  on 
hard  roads.  Like  the  nails  of 
human  beings,  the  horny  sub- 
stance of  the  hoof  may  be  pared 
without  causing  pain  unless  the 
quick  be  reached  ;  and  thus  it  is 

an  easy  matter  for  a  blacksmith  to  fit  and  fix  a  horse-shoe. 
The  V-shaped  formation  on  the  under  side  of  the  hoof  must 
never  be  cut  away,  for  unless  the  'frog,'  as  it  is  called, 
touches  the  ground,  the  hoof  loses  all  its  elastic  qualities. 
The  teeth  of  the  Horse  will  well  repay  inspection,  if  only 
because  they  have  largely  contributed  to,  if  not  actually 
decided,  the  fate  of  the  animal  as  the  servant  of  man.  A 
full  set  of  teeth  numbers  forty,  viz.,  six  incisors  above  and 
below ;  four  canines,  one  on  each  side  above  and  below  ; 


FOOT  OF  THE  HORSE 
WITH  SHOE. 


'  FROG '  OF  THE  HORSE'8  HOOF. 


THE  HORSE 


279 


and  twenty-four  molars,  six  on  each  side  above  and  below. 
Sometimes  there  is  an  additional  premolar  in  the  upper 
jaw,  but  it  is  always  small  and  is  frequently  wanting  alto- 
gether. Between  the  canines  and  the  molars  is  a  vacant 
space  called  the  '  bar,'  in  which  fits  the  bit  by  which  the 
Horse  is  guided  and  controlled. 

A  young  horse  or  colt  gets  its  second  or  permanent  teeth 
in  a  fixed  order.  The  two  new  middle  incisors  in  each  jaw 
appear  when  the  animal  is  two  and  a  half  years  old  ;  the 
two  next  teeth  a  year  later  ;  and  the  two  outside  ones  at  the 


A.  Thirty  days. 
D.  Eight  years. 


DENTITION   OF  THE   HORSE. 

B.  Three  years. 
E.  Fifteen  years. 


C.  Six  years. 
F.  Thirty  years. 


end  of  another  twelve  months.  Up  to  five  years  the  age  of 
the  Horse  can  be  fixed  with  almost  perfect  accuracy.  After 
that  period  only  experts  can  judge,  being  guided  by  the 
wearing  of  the  ring  of  enamel  round  the  edge  of  the  crown 
of  the  tooth.  But  when  this  '  mark,'  as  it  is  technically 
termed,  is  worn  down,  the  teeth  afford  no  further  definite 
indications  of  age. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  real  wild  species  is  now  in  existence. 
True,  there  are  still  herds  of  so-called  wild  Horses  in  Africa 
and  in  Western  and  Central  Asia ;  but  there  appears  little 
reason  to  doubt  that  they  are  but  the  descendants  of 


280  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

domesticated  animals,  that  have  escaped  and  reverted  to  the 
wild  state.  Whether  the  Tarpan,  or  Wild  Horse  of  Tartary, 
comes  into  this  category  or  not,  it  is  certainly  the  nearest 
approach  to  the  original  wild  species.  Its  mouse-coloured 
coat  is  marked  by  a  stripe  on  the  back.  In  disposition  it 
is  wild  and  fiery  in  the  extreme,  and  is  only  caught  by 
the  Tartar  hunters  lassoing  it ;  or  chasing  it  with  trained 
falcons  that  flutter  around  the  animal's  head  to  distract  its 
attention  from  the  hunter. 

The  Horse  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Bible  in  a 
manner  that  denotes  it  was  chiefly  used  in  war,  especially 
in  drawing  war-chariots.  The  animal  was  familiar  to  the 
Britons  before  the  arrival  of  Julius  Caesar.  King  Ethelstan 
forbade  the  export  of  native  Horses,  the  breed  of  which  he 
improved  by  the  introduction  of  German  and  Spanish 
varieties.  As  might  be  expected,  a  warlike  people  like  the 
Normans  paid  particular  attention  to  horse-breeding, 
especially  such  as  would  best  serve  for  cavalry.  To  King 
John  belongs  the  credit  of  introducing  into  England  the 
heavy  horse  of  Flanders  for  draught  purposes  and  for  field 
work  generally. 

The  Arab  Horse  is  probably  a  descendant  of  the  original 
Asiatic  wild  species.  It  was  introduced  into  Europe  in  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  together  with  the  Barb,  an  allied 
breed  in  North  Africa.  Until  warriors  discarded  heavy 
armour  their  horses  required  to  be  powerful  rather  than 
speedy,  but  the  altered  conditions  of  warfare  called  for 
horses  possessing  speed  and  endurance. 

The  result  of  centuries  of  careful  breeding  may  be  seen 
in  the  English  race-horse,  graceful  and  elegant,  the  swiftest 
horse  the  world  has  ever  known.  The  record  time  for  a 
mile  is  i  minute  35^  seconds.  The  hunter  is  not  a  distinct 
breed,  any  really  good  horse  well  serving  for  cross-country 
work,  if  he  possess  the  requisite  qualifications,  viz.,  mus- 
cular neck  and  chest,  short  body,  and  stouter  legs  than  a 
racer.  The  maximum  broad  jump  for  a  horse  of  this  type 
is  from  thirty-three  to  thirty-seven  feet. 

Cart  Horses  require  size,  strength,  and  endurance,  speed 
being  altogether  sacrificed  to  attain  those  ends.  The 
English  Shire  Horse,  the  Clydesdale  Horse,  and  the  Suffolk 


THE  HORSE  281 

Punch,  are  excellent  types  of  the  animals  which  play  no  part 
in  pomp  and  sport,  but  devote  their  ponderous  strength  to 
the  world  of  commerce.  Before  the  introduction  of  rail- 
ways, pack-horses  were  largely  used  in  the  conveyance  of 
merchandise  to  and  from  the  English  coast,  and  in  many 
countries  the  Horse  still  serves  in  a  similar  capacity. 

An  average  horse  can  carry  comfortably  on  its  back  a  load 
of  only  a  hundred  and  twenty  pounds,  compared  to  one  and 
a  half  tons  it  can  draw  in  a  wheeled  vehicle.  The  best 
known  breeds  of  Dray  Horses  can  far  exceed  this  weight.  A 
well-built  animal  was  put  to  a  remarkable  test  on  one  of  the 
Surrey  railways.  It  commenced  dragging  twelve  wagons 
of  a  total  weight  of  thirty-six  tons,  to  which  were  added 
other  wagons,  until  the  animal  was  moving  fifty-five  tons 
at  the  rate  of  nearly  four  miles  an  hour  for  six  hours.  Of 
course,  the  rails  played  an  important  part  in  the  transport 
of  the  great  weight,  but  that  does  not  discount  the  enormous 
strength  displayed  by  the  Horse. 

Of  the  endurance  of  the  Horse,  innumerable  instances 
might  be  afforded  where  the  animal  is  legitimately  employed  ; 
but  its  capabilities  are  best  shown  when  driven  to  display 
its  powers  to  serve  the  dire  needs  of  its  owner.  A  high- 
wayman took  flight  from  Chatham  at  four  o'clock  in  the 
morning.  At  Gravesend  he  was  delayed  for  nearly  an  hour, 
waiting  for  a  boat  to  convey  him  across  the  Thames  ;  and 
this  time  the  rider  occupied  in  baiting  his  steed.  At 
Chelmsford  the  horse  was  rested  for  half  an  hour,  and  then 
their  course  lay  through  Braintree,  Westerfield,  to  Cam- 
bridge, and  from  thence  to  Huntingdon.  Along  the  North 
Road  the  horse  galloped,  with  occasional  rests,  until  it  was 
finally  drawn  up  at  York  on  the  evening  of  the  same  day. 
In  due  course  the  rider  stood  his  trial  for  robbery  at 
Chatham,  and  would  have  swung  upon  the  gibbet,  but  that 
the  Lord  Mayor  of  York  testified  that  he  spoke  to  the 
prisoner  at  8.15  p.m.  on  the  day  of  the  robbery.  The  jury 
acquitted  him  on  the  ground  that  it  was  impossible  for  him 
to  have  travelled  so  great  a  distance  in  sixteen  hours  ;  which 
showed  that  they  did  not  know  the  Horse  so  well  as  did  the 
man  whose  life  the  gallant  steed  had  saved. 

Of  the  smaller  breeds  of  Horses,  the  Shetland  Pony  is 


282  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

best  known.  Only  seven  or  eight  hands  high  (a  hand  equals 
four  inches),  they  are  as  docile  as  they  are  hardy.  Their 
coats  are  shaggy,  and  in  winter  become  so  matted  as  to 
protect  the  animals  from  the  severe  weather  experienced  in 
their  northern  home.  Notwithstanding  their  small  size, 
they  are  wonderfully  strong,  and  they  are  capable  of  well 
sustained  exertion  without  fatigue.  A  Shetland  Pony  once 
ran  from  Norwich  to  Yarmouth  and  back  again,  a  total  dis- 
tance of  forty-four  miles,  in  three  and  three-quarter  hours ; 
and  though  it  was  a  feat  that  redounded  but  little  to  the 
credit  of  its  owner,  the  result  was  a  striking  testimony  to 
the  powers  of  endurance  of  the  little  horse. 

No  account  of  the  Horse  would  be  complete  without 
reference  to  the  wild,  or  semi-wild,  animals  of  America  and 
Australia.  In  the  latter  case  they  are  certainly  not  indi- 
genous to  the  Southern  continent,  but  are  positively  the 
descendants  of  horses  imported  by  the  colonists,  which  have 
escaped  into  the  wilds  to  revert  to  a  wild  state.  Small  and 
ugly,  the  '  Brumbies,'  as  they  are  called,  display  the  utmost 
vigilance  in  avoiding  capture  by  man.  In  some  districts  at 
one  time  they  existed  in  such  numbers  as  to  be  a  great 
nuisance  to  the  settlers ;  and  in  1875,  on  one  station  alone 
in  New  South  Wales,  several  thousands  of  the  animals  were 
shot. 

In  the  case  of  the  Wild  Horses,  or  Mustangs,  of  Mexico 
and  South  America,  there  exist  some  elements  of  doubt 
concerning  their  origin.  It  is  said  that  at  the  time  of  the 
discovery  of  America  there  were  no  Horses  in  any  part  of 
the  Continent,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  indigenous 
animals  had  been  exterminated  by  the  pumas.  But  whether 
they  be  indigenous,  or  the  descendants  of  the  Horses  intro- 
duced by  the  Spaniards,  the  fact  remains,  that  especially  on 
the  boundless  pampas  are  enormous  numbers  of  Horses, 
sometimes  as  many  as  several  thousand  in  a  single  troop. 
They  move  about  in  parties,  usually  headed  by  a  powerful 
stallion  ;  but  when  alarmed  the  whole  herd  moves  in  con- 
cert, and  if  attacked  the  strong  will  protect  the  weak.  The 
jaguar  is  often  beaten  off  from  an  animal  that  it  has  marked 
down.  In  fighting,  the  Horse  rears  itself  on  its  hind  feet 
and  brings  down  its  fore  hoofs  on  the  enemy,  while  at 


THE   HORSE  283 

less  close  quarters  it  kicks  out  its  hind  hoofs  with  terrific 
effect. 

The  Gauchos,  or  native  peons,  are  expert  Horse-catchers, 
and  in  rendering  their  captives  submissive  they  are  without 
equals  in  any  part  of  the  world,  not  even  second  to  the 
Mexican  vaqueros,  or  the  ranchmen,  called  cowboys,  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  Horses  are  sometimes 
chased  and  lassoed  ;  but  more  often  they  are  driven  into  a 
corral,  in  much  the  same  manner  as  elephants  are  captured. 

'  When  the  Gaucho  wishes  to  take  a  Wild  Horse,  he 
mounts  one  that  has  been  used  to  the  sport  and  gallops 
over  the  plain.  As  soon  as  he  comes  near  his  victim,  the 
lasso  is  thrown  round  the  two  hind  legs,  and  as  the  Gaucho 
rides  a  little  on  one  side,  the  jerk  pulls  the  entangled  Horse's 
feet  laterally,  so  as  to  throw  him  on  his  side  without 
endangering  his  knees  or  his  face.  Before  the  Horse  can 
recover  the  shock,  the  rider  dismounts,  and  snatching  his 
poncho,  or  cloak,  from  his  shoulders,  wraps  it  round  the 
prostrate  animal's  head.  He  then  forces  into  his  mouth 
one  of  the  powerful  bridles  of  the  country,  straps  a  saddle 
on  his  back,  and  bestriding  him,  removes  the  poncho.  The 
astonished  Horse  springs  on  his  legs,  and  endeavours  by  a 
thousand  vain  efforts  to  disencumber  himself  of  his  new 
master,  who  sits  quite  composedly  on  his  back,  and,  by  a 
discipline  which  never  fails,  reduces  the  Horse  to  such 
complete  obedience  that  he  is  soon  trained  to  lend  his 
whole  speed  and  strength  to  the  capture  of  his  companions.' 

Primitive  man  not  only  hunted  and  tamed  the  Horse,  but 
he  made  large  use  of  its  flesh  for  food.  It  was  a  well-known 
article  of  diet  in  Britain  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  as  it 
was  on  the  Continent  generally,  until,  in  the  eighth  century, 
its  use  was  forbidden  by  edict  in  the  Christian  Church.  But 
necessity  knows  no  law.  If  the  English  had  not  besieged 
Copenhagen  in  1807,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  Danes  would 
now  largely  utilise  horseflesh,  for  it  was  when  the  citizens 
were  reduced  to  extremities  that  they  gained  a  liking  for  the 
meat.  As  late  as  1629,  a  man  was  condemned  to  death  in 
France  for  eating  horseflesh  during  Lent ;  but  in  modern 
times  the  meat  is  in  considerable  demand,  largely  because 
it  is  only  about  half  the  price  of  beef.  Attempts  have  been 


284  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

made  to  popularise  the  use  of  horseflesh  in  London,  but 
there  is  practically  no  demand  for  it,  except  as  food  for 
dogs  and  cats.  Apart  from  the  services  it  renders  to  man 
during  its  life,  the  Horse  on  its  death  yields  useful  products 
in  its  hide  and  hair  ;  the  former  is  converted  into  excellent 
leather  ;  the  long  hair  is  woven  into  hair  cloth  of  great  use 
in  upholstery,  while  the  short  hair  is  used  for  a  variety  of 
purposes. 

WILD  ASS  (Equus  tceniopus). 
Coloured  Plate  XVI.  Fig.  i. 

Although  belonging  to  the  same  genus,  it  is  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish the  Ass  from  the  horse.  It  is  a  smaller  animal, 
with  a  short,  upright  mane,  very  long  ears,  and  the  tail  has 
long  hair  only  at  the  end.  The  hoof  is  narrower  and  more 
pointed  than  that  of  the  horse.  Though  the  animal  has  been 
domesticated  from  the  very  earliest  periods,  there  are  still 
parts  of  the  world  where  it  is  as  wild  and  free  as  ever  was 
the  Dziggetai,  or  Wild  Ass  of  the  Scriptures,  which  in  its 
fleetness  t  snuffed  up  the  wind  like  dragons.' 

In  Asia  the  Wild  Ass  (Equus  hemionus),  or  Onager, 
ranges  from  Syria,  through  Persia,  and  over  vast  tracts  in 
Central  Asia.  In  Africa  the  animal  occurs  in  the  north- 
east of  the  continent,  particularly  in  Abyssinia,  Somaliland, 
and  parts  of  the  Sudan.  It  is  the  African  species  that  is 
figured  on  the  plate.  The  Asiatic  species  averages  six  or 
seven  feet  in  length,  with  a  height  at  the  shoulders  of  about 
four  feet.  In  colour  it  is  generally  silver-grey  with  the 
under  parts  white,  a  dark  stripe  running  along  the  middle 
of  the  back,  from  the  mane  to  the  tail.  There  is,  however, 
considerable  variety  in  colour,  for  reddish-grey  and  chestnut 
animals  are  quite  common. 

Inhabiting  more  or  less  arid  regions,  the  Wild  Ass,  in 
parties  of  from  two  to  a  dozen,  roams  over  the  desert 
plains  or  the  mountain  uplands,  seeking  grass  and  water 
at  varying  elevations  according  to  the  season.  It  is  said 
that  a  herd  of  as  many  as  a  thousand  animals  has  been 
encountered,  probably  consisting  mainly  of  mares  and 
foals. 


THE  ASS  285 

The  animal  is  remarkable  for  its  wariness,  fleetness,  and 
its  ability  to  keep  up  a  great  pace  even  over  very  broken 
ground.  The  Persian  method  of  capturing  the  Koulan,  as 
they  call  the  Wild  Ass,  is  to  lie  in  wait  for  the  animal  at  a 
drinking-pool,  and  then  to  chase  it  on  specially  fast  horses. 
Out  in  the  open  plains  the  Ass  can  only  be  taken  by  means 
of  relays  of  horses  and  fleet  dogs  of  the  greyhound  type. 
Even  when  captured  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  a  Wild 
Ass  can  be  broken  in  to  render  useful  service,  for  frequently 
it  remains  absolutely  vicious  and  intractable,  in  which 
respect  it  offers  great  contrast  to  the  wild  horse  under 
similar  conditions. 

The  African  Wild  Ass  is  typified  in  the  variety  which 
inhabits  Egypt  and  Abyssinia.  It  is  principally  bluish- 
grey  in  colour,  but  the  ears  are  longer,  the  mane  shorter, 
and  the  tail  less  haired  than  in  the  Asiatic  species.  'The 
animal  in  its  native  desert,'  says  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  '  is  the 
perfection  of  activity  and  courage ;  there  is  a  high-bred 
tone  in  the  deportment,  a  high-actioned  step  when  it  trots 
freely  over  the  rocks  and  sand,  with  the  speed  of  a  horse. 
When  it  gallops  freely  over  the  boundless  desert,  no  animal 
is  more  difficult  to  approach,  and,  although  they  are  fre- 
quently captured  by  the  Arabs,  those  taken  are  invariably 
the  foals,  which  are  ridden  down  by  fast  dromedaries, 
while  the  mothers  escape.' 

In  the  regions  which  it  inhabits  the  flesh  of  the  Wild 
Ass  is  held  in  considerable  esteem,  the  Tartars  and  the 
Persians  preferring  it  to  almost  any  other  meat.  The  skin 
is  highly  valued,  and  is  made  into  the  celebrated  shagreen, 
which  is  dear  not  only  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  ass 
hides,  but  because  of  the  slow  and  intricate  method  of 
preparation. 

DOMESTIC   ASS  (Equus  asinus). 
Coloured  Plate  XVII.  Fig.  2. 

There  appears  to  be  little  doubt  that  the  domestic  Ass  is 
the  African  species  in  a  tame  state.  The  Valley  of  the 
Nile  was  the  scene  of  its  earliest  domestication,  from  which 


286  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

it  rapidly  spread  to  other  Eastern  countries.  Its  intro- 
duction into  Europe  may  be  considered  comparatively 
recent ;  in  England  it  was  known  in  the  time  of  King 
Ethelred,  when  it  was  valued  at  about  twelve  shillings,  a 
considerable  sum  in  those  days  ;  in  later  years  it  fell  into 
disfavour,  and  was  little  used  until  the  time  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  In  our  own  rather  unfriendly  clime  the  Ass  is 
ordinarily  a  spiritless  and  rather  degraded  animal,  inured 
to  harsh  treatment,  hard  labour,  and  the  scantiest  of  fare, 
in  return  for  which  it  exhibits  a  stubbornness  and  obstinacy 
that  are  proverbial. 

In  Eastern  countries,  as  Egypt  and  Syria,  Persia,  and 
even  India,  the  Ass  attains  a  considerably  larger  size  than 
in  Western  countries.  It  is  a  far  more  valuable  animal, 
well  groomed,  better  fed,  with  a  corresponding  good  return 
for  the  trouble  and  expenditure  incurred.  It  is  capable  of 
a  good  day's  journey  at  a  moderate  pace,  with  a  man  on 
its  back,  and  it  has  a  spirited  demeanour  and  wide-awake 
manner  which  render  it  a  pleasant  quadruped  to  deal  with. 
The  breed  is  carefully  selected,  and  a  well-bred  Ass  will 
fetch  as  much  as  forty  pounds.  Amongst  the  Jews  the 
most  honourable  persons  rode  on  Asses,  and  it  was 
used  for  all  purposes  of  agriculture  and  also  as  a  pack 
animal.  Our  Saviour  made  His  triumphant  entry  into 
Jerusalem  upon  a  colt,  the  foal  of  an  Ass,  and  the  animal 
selected  was  not  typical  of  meekness,  but  honourable  and 
suitable  in  dignity  to  bear  the  King  of  Israel. 

In  the  Southern  countries  of  Europe,  Spain  and  Italy  in 
particular,  and  in  the  Andes  regions  of  South  America,  the 
Ass  is  an  animal  of  considerable  importance,  its  sure- 
footedness  making  it  a  useful  pack  animal,  where  roads  are 
often  practically  non-existent,  or  at  best  poorly  constructed. 
In  these  countries  the  animal  attains  a  considerably  larger 
size  than  in  our  own  land ;  in  the  United  States  also, 
the  Ass  frequently  attains  a  height  of  from  fourteen  to 
sixteen  hands.  These  large  male  animals,  mated  with  female 
horses,  produce  the  crossbred  animals  that  are  known  as 
mules ;  if  the  sexes  are  reversed  the  offspring  is  called  a 
'  hinny.'  Mules  are  remarkably  surefooted,  and  possess 
special  powers  of  endurance  that  make  them  invaluable  for 


Plate    XVII. 


THE  ZEBRA  287 

carrying  burdens,  in  rocky  regions  where  a  horse  would  be 
practically  useless. 

ZEBRA   (Equus  Zebra). 
Coloured  Plate  XVII.  Fig.  3. 

The  true  Zebra  was  at  one  time  found  in  large  numbers 
in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Cape  Colony,  for  which 
reason  it  was  called  the  Mountain  Zebra.  In  modern 
times  it  has  been  almost  exterminated,  and  there  remain 
only  a  few,  that  are  strictly  preserved  in  some  of  the  more 
remote  districts.  It  is  a  singularly  handsome  animal,  four 
to  four  and  a  half  feet  high  at  the  withers.  Upon  a 
groundwork  of  white  is  a  series  of  glossy  jet-black  stripes, 
extending  from  its  nostrils  to  its  hoofs,  excepting  only  the 
white  under  parts.  The  muzzle  is  brown ;  the  tail  is 
scantily  haired,  except  at  the  tip.  The  animal  is  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  approach,  not  only  on  account  of  its 
watchfulness  and  agility,  but  equally  so  because  of  the 
difficult  country  which  it  inhabits.  While  feeding  on  the 
hillsides,  sentinels  are  posted,  and  the  moment  there  is  any 
cause  for  alarm  the  animals  are  off  like  the  wind. 

BurchelPs  Zebra  (Equus  burchelli)  is  a  native  of  the 
plains  to  the  north  of  the  Kalihari  desert  and  in  the 
Zambesi  regions.  It  is  a  little  taller  than  the  last  named, 
and  in  colour  it  is  more  yellowish-brown  ;  the  greater  part 
of  the  legs  is  white,  without  the  dark  stripes,  or  at  best  only 
faint  ones.  It  is  strong  and  muscular,  and  its  bony  limbs 
suggest  that  it  would  make  an  excellent  beast  of  burden. 
It  has  been  used  by  the  Dutch  colonists  in  harness  with 
mules,  but  not  very  successfully  ;  the  Mountain  Zebra  was 
practically  fairly  tractable  in  harness,  but  always  returned 
to  its  stall  with  such  ungovernable  fury  as  to  endanger  the 
lives  of  those  whose  duty  it  was  to  stable  it.  On  the 
other  hand  the  Hon.  Walter  Rothschild  had  a  team  of 
four  Zebras  at  Tring  Park  that  were  extremely  docile. 

In  Burchell's  Zebra  the  senses  of  sight,  hearing,  and 
smell  are  particularly  acute.  Any  object  with  which  they 
are  unfamiliar,  or  the  slightest  taint  in  the  air,  immediately 


288  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

attracts  their  startled  attention.  'They  combine  in  a 
compact  body  when  menaced  by  an  attack  either  from 
man  or  beast ;  with  their  heads  together  in  a  close  cir- 
cular band  they  present  their  heels  to  the  enemy,  and  deal 
out  kicks  in  equal  force  and  abundance.  Beset  on  all  sides, 
or  partially  crippled,  they  rear  on  their  hinder  legs,  fly  at 
the  adversary  with  jaws  distended,  and  use  both  teeth  and 
heels  with  the  greatest  freedom.' 

Grevy's  Zebra  (Equus  grevyi)  is  found  still  further  north 
in  the  Victoria  Nyanza  regions.  It  combines  the  chief 
features  of  the  two  foregoing  species.  Its  stripes  are 
narrower  than  those  of  the  common  Zebra ;  its  long 
mane  and  well-haired  tail  more  nearly  resemble  Burchell's 
Zebra.  Though  Grevy's  Zebra  will  at  times  mix  with 
domesticated  animals,  unlike  the  other  species  it  has  not 
been  known  to  interbreed  with  either  the  horse  or  the  ass. 


QUAGGA   (Equus  quaggd). 
Coloured  Plate  XVII.  Fig.  i. 

The  Quagga,  slightly  smaller  than  the  zebra,  was 
formerly  found  in  immense  herds  in  the  South  African 
plains  south  of  the  Vaal  River,  though  it  never  associated 
with  the  zebra.  It  not  infrequently  consorted  with  gnus 
and  ostriches ;  and  upon  occasion  it  would  join  the 
domesticated  ass  in  the  neighbourhood  of  settlements. 
Zebras  have  been  known  to  act  similarly,  and  upon  one 
occasion  a  zebra  stallion  was  fiercely  attacked  by  a  male 
donkey,  which  held  its  wild  relative  until  a  settler  was 
able  to  effect  its  capture.  Though  fierce  in  its  native 
plains,  and  often  proving  a  match  for  the  hyaena,  the 
Quagga  was  amenable  to  man  when  in  captivity.  Quite 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century  a  gentleman  drove  a  couple 
in  harness  in  Hyde  Park.  In  all  probability  the  animal  is 
now  quite  extinct,  largely  owing  to  the  Kaffirs  and  Bushmen 
hunting  it  for  food  ;  and  always  the  lion  was  very  partial 
to  zebra  and  Quagga  flesh. 


Chapter   X 

ORDER    VI.— UNGULATA    (continued) 

SUB-ORDER  4.— ARTIODACTYLA  (EVEN- 
TOED  ANIMALS) 

GROUP  L—RUMINANTIA 


20 


Sub-order  4.  Artiodactyla — Group  i.  Rumi- 
nantia — General  description  of  the  Pecora  or 
true  Ruminants — Hollow-horned  Ruminants  : 
Family  Bovidae  :  Domestic  Ox — Zebu — Wild 
Oxen  —  Gaur  —  Gayal  --  Banting  —  Yak  - 
European  Bison  —  American  Bison — Indian 
Buffalo  — Cape  Buffalo — Anoa — Musk  Ox- 
Sheep  and  Goats — Domestic  Sheep — Mouflon 
— Argali — Pamir  Wild  Sheep— Barbary  Wild 
Sheep  —  Bighorn  —  Common  Goat  —  Angora 
Goat — Kashmir  Goat — Ibex — Markhor — Tahr 
—Various  Wild  Goats — Family  Antilopidse  : 
General  description  —  Chamois  —  Gazelle  - 
Springbok  —  Gemsbok  —  Oryx  —  Equine  Ante- 
lope —  Sable  Antelope — Waterbuck — Eland — 
Gnu — Nilgai — Prong-horned  Antelope— Saiga 
Antelope  —  Klipspringer  —  Kudu  —  Hartebeest 
— Blesbok — Addax — Royal  Antelope — Dik-Dik 
Antelope — Family  Camelopardalidse:  Giraffe — 
Okapi  —  Solid-horned  Ruminants  :  Family 
Cervidae  :  General  description — Red  Deer — 
Fallow  Deer — Roe  Deer  —  Elk — Reindeer  — 
Wapiti— Virginian  Deer— Mule  Deer — Pampas 
Deer — Brockets  —  Pudu  Deer  —  Axis  Deer  — 
Sambar — Schomburgk's  Deer — Eld's  Deer — 
Muntjac  —  Japanese  Water  Deer  —  Chinese 
Water  Deer — Elaphure — Musk  Deer. 


CHAPTER  X 

Order  VI. — Ungulata   (continued] 

Sub-Order   4.— ARTIODACTYLA    (EVEN-TOED 

ANIMALS) 

A  RTIODACTYLA  means  even-toed,  and  in  this  sub- 
±\.  order  are  only  those  animals  which  possess  an  even 
number  of  digits,  either  two  or  four,  on  all  the  feet.  It 
includes  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the  species  of  the 
Ungulata,  e.g.,  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  antelopes,  deer,  giraffes, 
camels,  pigs,  &c.  Many  of  them  are  ruminating  animals, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  the  omnivorous  swine,  all  of 
them  are  purely  vegetable  feeders.  In  most  of  the  species 
the  upper  jaw  lacks  incisors,  and  very  frequently  there  are 
no  canine  teeth  ;  but  many  of  them  are  furnished  with  horns, 
and  a  few  of  them  with  tusks.  It  is  of  importance  to  note 
that  practically  all  the  animals  whose  flesh  supplies  the  tables 
of  all  the  civilised,  and  many  of  the  uncivilised,  peoples  of 
the  world,  are  included  in  the  sub-order  Artiodactyla,  which 
is  again  divided  into  four  well-marked  groups. 

GROUP  I.—RUMINANTIA. 

The  Latin  word  rumen  signifies  the  paunch  of  an  animal, 
and  the  title,  Ruminantia,  is  given  to  those  animals  which 
chew  the  cud  or  ruminate,  i.e.f  first  gather  their  food  into  a 
receptacle  called  the  paunch,'  and  then  return  it  to  the 
mouth  to  be  masticated  while  the  animal  is  at  rest.  In  most 
mammals  the  stomach  is  of  very  simple  construction,  merely 
a  bag,  the  inlet  of  which  is  the  oesophagus  or  gullet,  the 


292  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

outlet  at  the   other  end  being  the  pylorus,  i.e.,  the  '  little 
gate/  which  opens  into  the  small  intestine. 

But  for  rumination  the  stomach  is  a  much  more  compli- 
cated structure,  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
animal,  and  divided  into  four  distinct  compartments.  In 
the  accompanying  figures  is  first  presented  the  external 
appearance  of  a  Ruminant's  stomach,  and  then  is  shown 
the  same  organ  in  section.  Most  Ruminants  have  a 
hard  and  almost  horny  pad  in  place  of  incisor  teeth  in 
the  upper  jaw,  and  the  food  is  only  torn,  rather  than 
bitten,  before  it  passes  through  the  gullet,  marked  a,  into 


STOMACH   OF  A  RUMINANT. 

the  paunch,  which   is  the  large   division  of  the  stomach, 
marked  6. 

When  the  animal,  a  cow  for  example,  has  filled  the 
paunch,  or  rumen,  it  lies  down  and  proceeds  to  chew  the 
cud,  each  process  of  which  is  distinctly  easy  to  follow.  A 
portion  of  the  food  enters  the  second  division,  marked  c, 
which  is  called  the  reticulum,  or  little  net,  because  it  is  lined 
with  small  cells  like  network,  which  the  butcher  calls  the 
honeycomb.  In  these  cells  the  food  assumes  the  form  of 
little  pellets,  which  are  then  ejected  and  thrown  into  the 
mouth  to  undergo  proper  mastication,  the  animal  chewing 


THE  PECORA  293 

with  its  back  or  grinding  teeth,  moving  the  lower  jaw  from 
right  to  left. 

When  swallowed  for  a  second  time  the  food  passes  into 
the  third  division,  marked  d.  This  receptacle  is  called  the 
omasus  or  psalterium.  The  first  name  is  from  a  Greek  word 
signifying  '  all  together/  because  the  balls  which  are  chewed 
as  the  cud  are  thrown  together  into  it  ;  the  second  name 
literally  means  a  psalter,  in  consideration  of  the  lining  of 
the  receptacle  resembling  the  leaves  of  a  book.  The  butcher 
calls  it  the  '  moniplies '  or  many-folds. 

The  food  then  passes  into  the  stomach  proper,  marked  e, 


SECTION   OF  THE   STOMACH   OF  A  RUMINANT. 

and  which  is  commonly  called  the  reed  or  red,  from  its 
colour  ;  the  scientific  name  is  abomasus.  Here  the  gastric 
juice  is  secreted  and  the  process  of  digestion  takes  place. 
The  gastric  juice  of  the  calf  is  the  useful  material  called 
rennet,  with  which  milk  is  curdled  before  converting  it  into 
cheese. 

The  technical  name  of  the  true  Ruminants  is  Pecora,  and 
besides  the  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats,  includes  antelopes,  deer, 
and  giraffes,  which  chew  the  cud  in  precisely  the  same 
manner ;  in  the  case  of  the  camel,  llama,  and  chevrotains, 
there  are  divergences,  that  will  be  best  considered  when  the 
particular  animals  are  described. 


294  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

The  Ruminant  chews  the  cud  and  also  it  '  divides  the 
hoof.'  The  cow  has  typical  cloven  feet,  in  which  the  thumb 
of  the  fore  and  the  great  toe  of  the  hind  feet  are  entirely 
wanting.  The  foot  consists  really  of  the  third  and  fourth 
toes,  upon  which  it  walks,  while  the  second  and  fifth  are  less 
developed,  and  though  hoofed  are  little  less  than  mere  spurs. 
In  the  camels  and  giraffes  even  these  last  are  lacking. 

Many,  if  not  most,  of  the  Ruminants  possess  horns  on  the 
head,  which  may  be  either  one  of  two  distinct  kinds.  Those 
of  the  deer  tribe  are  not  true  horns,  but  antlers,  composed  of 
the  same  material  as  bone  ;  they  are  not  permanent,  but  are 
shed  annually.  The  horn  of  the  cow  is  made  of  the  same 
material  as  the  hoof,  and  is  like  baleen,  or  whalebone,  which 
is  nothing  less  than  an  agglomeration  of  hairs  (see  p.  405). 
It  is  formed  round  a  projection  of  the  skull,  called  the  core, 
and  consequently  is  hollow  at  the  base,  and  practically 
throughout  its  entire  length.  Generally  the  horns  are 
permanent,  there  being  but  few  exceptions.  The  Hollow- 
horned  Ruminants  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  man, 
and  may  well  take  the  first  place  in  a  description  of  the 
various  species  of  the  Artiodactyla. 

HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANTS. 
FAMILY   BOVID^E   (OXEN,    &c.) 

Included  in  the  Oxen  are  not  only  the  massively  built 
animals  with  which  we  are  acquainted  in  our  own  country, 
but  also  the  Bison,  Buffalo,  and  Yak.  A  child,  when  asked 
to  define  an  Ox,  said  it  was  a  square  animal  with  a  leg  at 
each  corner,  in  which  was  naively  expressed  the  childish 
conception  of  the  solidity  which  marks  the  Oxen  family. 
The  head,  short  in  proportion  to  the  body,  and  attached  to 
a  short,  thick  neck,  is  nearly  in  a  line  with  the  back.  The 
muzzle  is  broad  and  naked  ;  the  tail  is  long,  thinly  haired 
for  the  most  part,  but  with  a  tuft  at  the  end.  Most  of  the 
males  show  a  large  dewlap,  extending  from  the  chin  to  well 
between  the  fore  legs. 

Both  sexes  possess  horns,  and  there  is  usually  little 
difference  in  their  dimensions.  The  horns  may  be  cylindrical 


Plate  XVin. 


1.  Merino  Sheep 


2.  Domestic  Swine 


3. Sheep 


4. Domestic  Goat. 


5.  Cow  and  Calf 


THE  DOMESTIC  OX  295 

or  angulated,  but  they  are  never  spirally  twisted,  or  marked 
by  knots  or  excrescences  of  any  kind.  Domesticated 
animals  are  cosmopolitan  ;  they  are  spread  throughout 
the  entire  globe,  excepting  only  the  extremely  cold  regions. 
In  a  wild  state  Oxen  are  gregarious,  roaming  grassy  plains 
or  dense  forests,  and  in  one  or  two  cases  even  cold 
mountainous  regions. 

DOMESTIC  OX  (Bos  taurus). 
Coloured  Plate  XVIII.  Fig.  5. 

The  ancient  wild  Ox  of  Europe  was  the  Urus,  or  Aurochs. 
Julius  Caesar  has  left  it  on  record  that  the  animal  was  little 
less  than  an  elephant  in  size,  and  that  a  man's  prowess  was 
gauged  by  the  number  of  horns  he  had  secured  in  the 
chase.  The  domesticated  cattle  of  Europe  are  doubtless  the 
descendants  of  this  wild  species,  although 
it  is  quite  probable  there  were  others. 

The  domestication  of  the  animal,  the 
growth  of  population,  and  the  ever  in- 
creasing toll  of  man  in  search  of  the  best 
of  meat  would  naturally  cause  a  diminu- 
tion in  the  numbers  of  the  wild  species  ; 
and  upon  this  in  1348  came  the  Black 
Death,  in  which  animals  suffered  terribly, 
though  in  a  less  degree  than  human 

beings.  FOOT  OF  THE  cow. 

In  various  parks  in  England  and  Scot- 
land are  still  herds  of  wild  or  semi-wild  cattle  (Plate  XXVIII. 
Fig.  2),  that  are  often  claimed  to  be  the  direct  descendants 
of  the  Aurochs  ;  but  it  is  far  more  likely  that  their  imme- 
diate ancestors  were  some  of  the  earlier  domesticated  breeds. 
One  of  the  best  known  herds  is  that  in  Chillingham  Park, 
Northumberland,  which  certainly  dates  back  for  nearly 
three  centuries.  The  animals  present  features  that  are 
distinctly  interesting ;  they  graze  chiefly  at  night ;  they 
hide  their  young ;  and,  though  shy  and  moving  off  while 
some  approaching  object  is  at  a  considerable  distance, 
they  exhibit  much  fierceness  when  pressed. 


296 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


In  many  regions  there  are  numerous  domestic  breeds  of 
Oxen,  differing  considerably  in  shape  and  colour,  and  vary- 
ing in  the  quality  of  their  flesh,  and  in  the  quantity  and 
richness  of  the  milk  they  yield.  The  flat  backs  and  rather 
rectangular  bodies  of  the  domesticated  Ox  always  distin- 
guish it  from  the  majority  of  the  truly  wild  species.  British 
breeds,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties,  rank  high  among 
the  world's  domesticated  cattle,  and  they  are  eagerly  sought 
for  by  foreign  and  colonial  buyers  to  improve  their  own 
strains. 

Various  breeds  of  long-horned  cattle  have  largely  given 


SKELETON   OF  THE  COW. 

way  to  the  famous  Shorthorns  of  the  northern  counties. 
This  is  undoubtedly  the  best  all-round  breed — large,  level- 
backed  animals,  easily  fattened  for  market.  Apart  from 
meat  and  milk,  short-horned  animals  are  easier  to  handle  in 
the  field  and  especially  in  transport,  whether  by  boat  or 
rail.  Herefords  are  chiefly  red,  with  white  faces  and  rather 
long,  upturned  horns.  They  are  excellent  animals  for 
fattening,  and  are  in  great  demand  for  summer  beef.  The 
Sussex  and  the  Devons  are  popular  breeds  ;  the  former  in 
particular  was  once  very  largely  employed  in  draught  and 
farm  work. 

Highland  cattle  are  moderate  or  small-sized  animals,  with 


THE  ZEBU  297 

thick  hides  and  shaggy  black  or  brown  coats.  They  are 
grazed  largely  in  the  Western  Highlands  and  fattened  in  the 
South.  They  yield  beef  of  the  finest  quality.  Welsh  cattle 
are  as  hardy  as  the  Highland,  thriving  on  poor  mountain 
pastures ;  they  are  mostly  black,  and  the  horns  are  rather 
long.  There  are  also  polled  or  hornless  cattle,  of  which  the 
Red  Suffolk  is  one  of  the  best  examples  ;  it  is  a  valuable 
breed,  hardy  and  a  wonderful  milker.  The  Alderneys  and 
Jerseys  are  small  animals  of  practically  little  use  to  the 
butcher,  but  they  yield  the  richest  yellow  cream  and  butter. 
So  much  is  this  the  case  that  the  milk  of  even  one  cow  will 
make  an  appreciable  difference  to  the  milk  of  a  whole  herd 
of  another  variety. 

Of  the  Continental  cattle  may  be  mentioned  the  Dutch 
black  and  white  breed,  which  is  also  popular  in  Denmark 
and  in  a  large  part  of  Germany.  The  animal  requires  no 
testimony  beyond  the  statement  that  Holland  and  Denmark 
are  among  the  finest  dairying  countries  in  the  world. 

In  all  civilised  countries  cattle-breeding  is  an  important 
branch  of  agriculture,  but  many  of  the  great  industrial 
populations  look  to  the  vast  grazing  grounds  of  the  New 
World  and  Australasia  for  a  large  proportion  of  their  meat. 
In  the  British  Isles,  with  a  population  of  about  forty-five 
millions,  we  possess  about  eleven  million  cattle  ;  the  United 
States  has  only  double  the  population  but  five  times  as 
many  cattle ;  Argentina  has  only  a  population  of  five 
millions,  yet  owns  twenty-one  million  cattle  ;  and  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand,  with  a  population  far  less  than  that 
of  London,  possess  more  cattle  than  are  in  the  whole  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  Every  year  it  is  necessary  to  import  into 
the  British  Isles  about  a  million  tons  of  meat,  and  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  the  three  regions  mentioned  above  will  at  any 
rate  be  able  to  supply  much  of  the  beef  that  is  required. 

ZEBU  (Bos  indicus}. 
Coloured  Plate  XIX.  Fig.  3. 

The  Indian  Ox,  Zebu,  or  Brahmin  Bull,  bulks  largely  in 
the  fifty  million  cattle  of  India,  and  it  is  common  in  East 


298  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

Africa  and  Madagascar.  Its  distinguishing  characteristics 
are  a  large  hump  upon  its  withers,  drooping  ears,  and  a 
very  large  dewlap.  Its  coat  is  generally  exquisitely  fine,  the 
colour  being  cream  or  grey,  white  or  mouse  colour.  It 
seldom  seeks  the  shade,  and  is  never  seen  standing  knee- 
deep  in  water,  as  British  cattle  are  so  fond  of  doing  in  the 
warm  weather.  There  is  a  variety  of  breeds,  with  marked 
diversity  in  size,  ranging  from  those  equal  to  our  own 
larger  breeds  to  others  scarcely  bigger  than  a  mastiff. 

The  Zebu  is  gentle  in  disposition,  and  is  used  for  riding 
and  for  draught ;  but  in  India  many  of  the  finer  bulls  are 
dedicated  to  the  god  Siva.  These  sacred  bulls  are  nearly 
as  intolerable  a  nuisance  as  the  venerated  monkeys  referred 
to  in  an  earlier  chapter.  They  wander  just  where  they  like 
in  the  streets  and  market-places,  block  up  the  traffic,  and  no 
one  dares  to  drive  them  away.  They  help  themselves  to 
the  choicest  vegetables  and  fruit,  and  the  aggrieved  owners 
may  not  even  check  their  depredations.  They  behave 
generally  like  spoiled  children  or  dogs,  rendered  selfish 
and  offensive  by  the  weakness  of  those  who  ought  to  have 
taught  them  better. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  railway  in  India  a  Brahmin  bull 
charged  a  locomotive,  with  somewhat  disastrous  results  to 
the  holy  animal.  It  was  feared  that  the  natives  would  view 
the  railway  as  a  menace  to  their  religion.  To  the  great 
satisfaction  of  the  authorities  the  people  did  not  take 
offence  ;  they  simply  accepted  the  engine  as  a  superior 
divinity,  and  decorated  it  with  flowers. 

WILD   OXEN. 

In  many  parts  of  the  world,  but  especially  in  India, 
Australia,  and  South  America,  are  vast  numbers  of  wild 
cattle,  that  are  but  the  descendants  of  domesticated  species. 
They  are  probably  as  wild  and  unrestrained  as  ever  was  the 
Aurochs  itself,  and  in  the  immense  plains  where  they  roam 
it  is  difficult  to  come  within  gunshot  of  them.  These  feral 
animals  call  for  no  mention  beyond  the  fact  of  their 
existence,  but  there  are  various  genuine  wild  species,  with- 
out which  no  account  of  the  Ox  tribe  would  be  complete. 


WILD  OXEN  299 

GAUR  (Bos  gaurus) . 

The  range  of  the  Gaur  is  wide,  including  most  of  the 
hilly,  forested  regions  between  the  North-eastern  Himalaya 
and  Cape  Comorin  ;  from  Assam  the  animal  extends  to  the 
Malay  Peninsula. 

The  Gaur  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  specimens 
of  the  Ox  tribe ;  so  large  is  it  that  its  native  name 
signifies  '  horned  elephant.*  A  full-grown  male  stands 
six  feet  high  at  the  shoulder  ;  its  hide  alone  is  a  fair  load 
for  a  draught  ox.  The  greenish-yellow  horns  are  flattened, 
especially  where  they  spring  from  the  skull  ;  they  average 
two  feet  in  length,  but  are  very  often  quite  three.  Its  well 
set-up,  massive  forequarters  give  the  animal  a  particularly 
bold  and  alert  appearance,  largely  due  to  a  ridge  running 
from  the  shoulders  to  the  middle  of  the  back.  There  is 
practically  no  dewlap.  The  colour  of  the  hide  is  mainly 
dark  brown,  merging  into  black  with  age  ;  the  legs  are 
chiefly  white.  The  thick  hide  that  covers  the  shoulders 
is  largely  used  for  native  shields. 

Living  in  herds  of  seldom  more  than  a  dozen  animals, 
the  Gaur  is  shy  and  timid,  and  never  visits  the  vicinity  of 
settlements  or  cultivated  land.  Considering  its  size  the 
animal  is  remarkably  active,  especially  in  the  hilly  and 
wooded  ground  which  it  frequents.  Fierce  combats  take 
place  between  the  bulls  for  the  leadership  of  a  herd ;  but 
even  an  old,  solitary  bull  is  really  seldom  dangerous  to  the 
hunter,  except  from  its  first  blind  rush  when  surprised  in  its 
jungle  lair. 

The  Gaur  has  been  domesticated  to  a  very  small  extent, 
and  only  by  the  hill  tribes  of  the  North-east. 


GAYAL  (Bos  frontalis). 
Plate  XXIX.  Fig.  2. 

The  Gayal,  or  Mithan,  is  found  chiefly  in  the  region  east 
of  the  Bramaputra,  but  also  in  the  coast  strip  extending  as 
far  as  Tenasserim.  It  is  a  smaller  animal  than  the  Gaur  ; 
the  shoulder-ridge  is  less  defined,  but  the  dewlap  is  bigger. 


300  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

The  horns  are  conical  instead  of  flat,  and  though  they  curve 
upwards  they  do  not  bend  inwards  at  their  tips.  The 
Gayal  is  very  easily  domesticated,  and  in  its  native  regions 
many  of  the  herds,  though  half-wild,  return  to  their  owners 
at  night  after  roaming  the  forest  all  the  day.  Unlike  the 
zebu,  the  Mithan  is  never  used  as  a  beast  of  burden  or  in 
agricultural  labour. 

The  Kukis  of  the  Chittagong  region,  in  capturing  the 
animal,  trade  upon  its  liking  for  salt  and  a  particular  kind 
of  earth.  Balls  of  these  mixed  substances  are  thrown  down 
in  some  jungle  area  that  is  known  to  be  frequented  by  a 
wild  herd.  The  animals  will  not  leave  the  district  so  long 
as  there  are  balls  to  be  consumed,  and  the  hunter  spreads 
them  about  for  a  period  of  five  or  six  weeks.  During  this 
time  he  sends  out  his  tame  Gayals  to  mix  with  their  wild 
brethren,  and  then  proceeds  to  familiarise  the  wild  oxen 
with  himself.  Presently  he  can  go  among  the  mixed 
animals  and  stroke  the  tame  ones  without  affrighting  the 
wild  ones,  who  in  due  course  allow  themselves  to  be 
caressed.  Thus  it  comes  about  that  at  the  end  of  the  fifth 
or  sixth  week  the  Kuki  villager  is  able  to  drive  home  the 
mixed  herd,  there  to  complete  the  subjection  of  the  latest 
additions  to  his  stock. 

The  Banting,  or  Javan  Ox  (Bos  sondaicus),  more  nearly 
approaches  the  typical  domestic  oxen  than  either  the  gaur 
or  gayal.  Its  range  extends  throughout  Burma,  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  and  some  of  the  larger  islands  beyond  ; 
in  Indo-China  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon.  It  is  a 
dweller  of  the  plains  rather  than  the  uplands.  Lending 
itself  very  well  to  domestication,  the  Malays  keep  large 
herds  of  Bantings.  The  domesticated  animal  mixes  freely 
and  breeds  with  the  ordinary  humped  cattle  of  India. 

YAK  (Bos  grunniens}. 
Coloured  Plate  XIX.  Fig.  2. 

The  Yak,  or  Grunting  Ox,  appears  to  be  a  connecting 
link  between  the  true  Oxen  and  the  Bisons.  It  is  practi- 
cally restricted  to  Tibet  and  the  adjacent  mountains  and 


Plate    XIX. 


THE  YAK  301 

tablelands.  From  the  bison  like  head  of  the  animal  spring 
two  horns,  often  each  a  yard  long  and  with  a  girth  of 
eighteen  inches  at  the  base.  It  is  a  short-legged,  massive, 
shaggily-clothed  animal,  the  black,  silky  hair  being  longest 
on  its  shoulders,  flanks,  and  thighs,  ending  in  a  bushy 
white  tail  like  that  of  a  horse.  In  India  the  Yak's  tail  is 
called  a  '  chowry/  and  as  a  fly-switch  it  invariably  figures 
largely  in  the  great  ceremonial  processions  of  the  East. 

The  wild  Yak  wanders  about  the  desolate  mountain 
regions  in  herds  of  from  ten  to  a  hundred.  It  delights  in 
cold,  and  will  thrive  on  the  rough,  wiry  pasturage  which 
is  obtainable  at  even  an  elevation  of  20,000  feet.  The 
Tibetans  are  extremely  jealous  of  the  few  foreign  sportsmen 
who  enter  their  sterile  country,  and  forbid  the  hunting  of 
the  Yak  under  severe  penalties.  The  French  travellers, 
Hue  and  Gabet,  once  encountered  a  herd  of  wild  animals 
that  had  been  frozen  in  the  ice  while  crossing  a  river.  Only 
the  heads  of  the  poor  dead  beasts  appeared  above  the 
glassy  surface.  If  this  animal  tragedy  had  been  followed 
by  a  landslip,  the  preserved  bodies  of  the  Yaks  might  have 
been  dug  up  ages  afterwards,  just  as  in  the  case  of  the 
mammoth  remains  in  the  north  of  the  continent. 

The  domesticated  Yak  is  an  animal  of  the  greatest 
economic  importance  in  the  Himalayan  regions.  It  is  the 
only  beast  of  burden  that  can  traverse  those  high  altitudes, 
and  it  forms  really  the  sole  means  of  communication 
between  India  and  Tibet.  In  a  temperature  where  quick- 
silver freezes,  along  mountain  tracks  covered  deep  in  snow, 
the  loaded  Yaks,  surefooted  as  goats,  scramble  along  un- 
complainingly where  camels  and  horses  would  lie  down 
and  die.  Even  when  one  of  the  beasts  slips  from  the 
treacherous  path  and  rolls  down  the  mountain-side  it  will 
recover  itself  and  clamber  back  to  its  companions.  One 
great  disadvantage  is  that  the  Yak  will  not  eat  grain.  For 
the  use  of  the  pack-animals  a  large  amount  of  fodder  must 
be  carried,  or  a  party  has  to  go  ahead  to  collect  the 
mountain  pasturage  that  is  perhaps  far  removed  from  the 
sterile,  rocky  passes  which  form  the  only  available  roads. 

The  Yak  is  sometimes  crossed  with  ordinary  cattle,  and 
the  half-breeds  are  able  to  endure  the  heat  of  some  of  the 


302  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

mountain  valleys,  which  the  pure  Yak  would  find  to  be 
quite  intolerable.  This,  however,  applies  not  to  Tibet  so 
much  as  the  North-western  Himalaya — for  example,  the 
route  between  Leh  and  Kashmir. 

Opinions  differ  concerning  the  flesh  of  an  old  Yak,  but 
by  common  consent  the  meat  of  a  young  animal  is 
richer  than  ordinary  veal.  The  milk  is  often  dried  and 
powdered ;  the  hair  is  spun  into  a  variety  of  fabrics ;  and 
in  the  most  desolate  regions  Yak  dung  and  bones  are  the 
only  available  fuel. 

BISONS. 

The  Bisons  form  a  very  distinct  group  of  the  Oxen 
family.  Their  distinguishing  features  are  their  massive 
fronts,  the  withers  being  much  higher  than  the  hind- 
quarters, the  general  effect  being  heightened  by  the  thicker 
covering  of  hair  on  the  head,  shoulders,  and  fore  legs. 

EUROPEAN   BISON  (Bos  europczus). 
Coloured  Plate  XIX.  Fig.  i. 

The  European  Bison  is  very  often  improperly  called  the 
Aurochs.  It  resembles  a  brown,  heavily-fronted,  stout- 
limbed  Ox.  It  is  usually  fierce  and  dangerous,  and  as  the 
animal  is  ten  feet  in  length,  it  is  an  opponent  not  to  be 
lightly  encountered.  It  generally  feeds  in  the  morning  and 
evening,  chiefly  eating  leaves,  twigs,  and  bark.  The  cows 
calve  only  once  in  about  three  years.  It  is  said  that  a  bull 
Bison  will  maintain  its  own  against  at  least  four  hungry 
wolves. 

The  Bison  was  once  common  on  the  Continent.  Fossil 
remains  are  found  in  England,  and  indicate  that  the  animal 
was  once  much  larger  than  the  few  of  the  species  that  are 
now  in  existence.  There  are  only  a  few  wild  specimens  in 
the  Caucasus,  and  a  fair-sized  herd  is  specially  preserved  in 
Lithuania.  In  this  region,  in  1752,  the  King  of  Poland  in 
a  great  hunt  killed  as  many  as  sixty  in  a  day.  When  the 
animals  were  threatened  with  extinction,  steps  were  taken 


THE  AMERICAN  BISON  3°3 

to  preserve  the  species,  with  very  good  effect.  But  when 
there  was  a  revolution  in  the  country  numbers  of  refugees 
fled  to  the  forests,  and  they  did  not  scruple  to  hunt  the 
preserved  animals  for  food.  Thirty  years  ago  it  was 
calculated  that  not  more  than  six  hundred  Bisons  survived, 
and  they  have  gradually  decreased,  and  the  time  is  not  far 
distant  when  the  European  Bison  will  be  added  to  the  list 
of  extinct  animals. 


AMERICAN   BISON  (Bos   americanus). 
Plate  XXVIII.  Fig.  i. 

The  American  Bison,  more  often  than  not  incorrectly 
called  the  Buffalo,  is  a  bulkier  animal  than  the  European 
species,  from  which  it  differs  chiefly  in  the  possession  of 
a  still  larger  head  and  a  clothing  of  longer  and  shaggier 
hair.  A  bull  will  often  measure  5  feet  8  inches  at  the 
withers,  but  though  the  average  is  below  this,  the  species 
will  weigh  anything  from  fifteen  hundred  to  nearly  two 
thousand  pounds. 

Owing  to  its  shagginess  the  Bison  appears  to  be  of 
greater  size  than  in  reality  is  the  case ;  but  '  the  magnificent 
dark-brown  frontlet  and  beard,  the  shaggy  coat  of  hair  upon 
the  neck,  hump,  and  shoulders,  terminating  at  the  knees  in 
a  thick  mass  of  luxuriant  black  locks,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
dense  coat  of  finer  fur  on  the  body  and  hindquarters,  give 
to  the  species  not  only  an  apparent  height  equal  to  that  of 
the  Gaur,  but  a  grandeur  and  nobility  of  presence  which 
are  beyond  all  comparison  among  ruminants/  These  are 
the  words  of  Mr.  Hornaday,  than  whom  no  one  is  better 
qualified  to  speak  of  the  animal. 

A  melancholy  interest  is  attached  to  this  member  of  the 
Ox  family,  which  formerly  ranged  over  the  prairies  of  North 
America  from  the  Arctic  Circle  to  Mexico.  Well  within 
the  memory  of  living  man  the  Bison  blackened  the  prairies 
with  its  countless  herds.  It  was  to  the  red  man  what  the 
walrus  still  is  to  the  Eskimo.  The  flesh  afforded  abundant 
food  for  himself  and  his  wife  and  children  ;  its  skins  fur- 
nished him  with  coverings  for  his  wigwams,  or  tent-houses ; 


3o4  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

supplied  him  with  warm  robes  wherewith  to  defy  the  frosts 
of  winter ;  and  gave  him  the  flexible,  yet  almost  impene- 
trable, shields  with  which  he  could  ward  off  the  arrows, 
spears,  and  even  the  bullets  of  his  enemies.  It  is  true  that 
the  red  man,  being  only  a  few  steps  beyond  the  absolute 
savage,  had  no  idea  of  preserving  a  creature  so  invaluable 
to  himself,  and  that  he  destroyed  it  wherever  he  could  find 
it.  He  organised  hunting  parties  and  killed  thousands  of 
Bisons  annually  merely  for  their  skins  or  for  the  most  deli- 
cate parts  of  the  meat,  leaving  the  rest  to  the  beasts  and  the 
birds. 

The  destruction  of  a  large  number  of  Bisons  at  the 
same  time  was  always  facilitated  by  their  strange  lack  of 
perception  of  danger.  Once  a  herd  stampeded,  nothing 
could  turn  aside  the  compact  mass  of  plunging  beasts, 
galloping  with  the  head  close  to  the  ground  and  the  tail 
high  up  in  the  air — not  even  a  yawning  precipice  or  a  bog 
that  was  a  trap  for  pounding  feet.  The  fate  of  the  leaders 
was  no  warning  to  those  in  the  rear.  The  Indians,  by 
means  of  a  cordon,  often  drove  a  whole  herd  to  destruction, 
not  using  one-tenth  part  of  the  dead,  but  leaving  the 
carcasses  to  decay.  The  herds  always  moved  southwards 
from  two  to  four  hundred  miles  as  winter  approached, 
and  during  these  migrations  their  numbers  would  be  sadly 
depleted  by  quicksands,  bogs,  river-fords,  or  treacherous  ice. 

No  quadrupeds  of  any  size  ever  congregated  in  such 
immense  numbers  as  the  American  Bison.  To  find  a 
parallel  one  must  go  to  the  Rodents ;  but  a  swarm  of 
lemmings  or  hamsters  is  a  very  different  matter  to  a 
multitude  of  ponderous  animals  such  as  the  Bison.  It 
was  no  mere  figure  of  speech  to  say  that  the  prairies 
were  blackened  with  Bisons.  Only  as  far  back  as  the 
early  seventies  a  train  on  the  Kansas  Pacific  Railway 
passed  through  a  herd  for  a  distance  of  over  a  hundred 
miles.  It  was  the  construction  of  the  transcontinental 
railways  that  finally  spelt  almost  total  extinction  of  the 
Bison.  The  white  man  ought  to  have  checked  the  Indian 
and  imposed  limits  upon  the  destruction  of  so  important 
an  animal ;  but  he  outrivalled  the  savage  in  the  work  of 
extermination.  In  1872-74  no  less  than  four  millions  and 


I.     AMERICAN    BISOX. 


2.     ENGLISH    WILD    BULL. 
(See  page  295) 


(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.ZS.) 


PLATE  XXIX. 


i.     BARBARY   WILD    SHEEP. 

(See  page  315) 


2.     GAYAL. 

(See  page  299) 

(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


THE  INDIAN   BUFFALO  305 

a  half  of  Bisons  were  destroyed,  merely  for  the  sake  of 
the  hides,  the  bodies  being  left  upon  the  ground.  Within 
the  space  of  four  square  acres  have  been  counted  sixty- 
seven  dead  animals,  which  had  merely  been  stripped  of 
their  skins  and  then  left  to  decay. 

Less  than  half  a  century  ago  the  American  Bison 
was  one  of  the  marvels  of  creation,  in  the  multitude  of 
its  individuals  in  a  comparatively  restricted  area.  The 
rapid  annihilation  of  a  species  of  huge  quadrupeds  is 
unprecedented  in  the  history  of  the  animal  world.  The 
once  mighty  herds  have  been  reduced  to  a  mere  hand- 
ful of  animals  conserved  by  the  United  States  Government 
in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park ;  but  with  a  species  so 
slow  in  natural  increase  it  is  but  a  question  of  time  when 
this  great  race  of  Oxen  becomes  but  a  memory. 

BUFFALOES. 

The  Buffaloes,  another  group  of  Oxen,  differ  in  various 
particulars  from  any  of  the  foregoing  members  of  the  tribe. 
In  colour  they  are  chiefly  black,  and  generally  thinly  haired, 
so  much  so  that  the  older  animals  are  more  or  less  naked. 
The  horns  are  flattened  and  the  section  at  the  base  is 
triangular.  The  European  Buffalo  (Bubalus  vulgaris)  is 
largely  used  in  Southern  Europe,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor  in 
field  work  and  as  a  beast  of  burden.  The  animal  is  a 
domesticated  variety  of  a  similar  species  that  is  a  native 
of  India. 

INDIAN  BUFFALO  (Bos  bubalus). 

The  Indian  species,  known  as  the  Arnee,  is  the  largest 
of  the  Buffaloes.  It  is  a  dusky  animal,  nearly  six  feet 
high  at  the  shoulders,  and  possessing  horns  that  sometimes 
attain  a  length  of  six  feet.  In  the  British  Natural  History 
Museum  is  a  specimen  nearly  eighty  inches  in  length.  The 
animal  is  never  far  from  the  neighbourhood  of  water, 
and  is  exceedingly  fond  of  wallowing  in  the  mud,  on 
which  account  it  is  often  called  the  Water  Buffalo,  It 
not  infrequently  chews  the  cud  while  immersed  in  water, 
exposing  little  more  than  the  head  above  the  surface. 

21 


3o6  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

The  Arnee  lives  in  herds,  often  numbering  fifty  animals, 
and  as  they  do  not  fight  shy  of  settled  districts  they  often 
break  into  cultivated  land  and  work  considerable  damage. 
In  disposition  the  animal  is  considered  the  fiercest  and 
most  dangerous  of  the  Bovidae  ;  it  will  attack  and 
knock  down  an  elephant ;  and  the  tiger  is  by  no  means 
easy  in  its  mind  when  in  the  Buffalo's  vicinity.  Hunting 
the  animal  in  the  low,  damp  jungles  is  consequently  a 
sport  not  to  be  lightly  undertaken.  The  grass  and  reeds 
usually  hide  even  a  fairly  sized  herd,  making  it  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  get  a  shot  at  any  particular  beast. 

The  animal  is  not  domesticated  to  any  large  extent,  and 
in  subjection  will  not  interbreed  with  the  humped  cattle. 
The  wild  species  is  not  found  outside  Hindostan,  and  any 
similar  animals  in  Further  India  and  Malaysia  are  only  the 
descendants  of  once  domesticated  Buffaloes. 


CAPE  BUFFALO  (Bos  caffer). 

Of  all  the  species  and  varieties  of  the  Ox  tribe  in  Africa, 
and  they  are  many,  the  Cape  or  Black  Buffalo  is  the  most 
formidable.  It  is  no  whit  better  than  its  slightly  bigger 
Indian  relative,  though  from  its  appearance  one  might 

judge  it  to  be 
worse.  The 
chief  features 
of  this  African 
Buffalo  are  the 
broad  muzzle, 
large  ears,  and 
the  remarkable 
manner  in 
which  in  the 

HORNS  OF  THE  CAPE  BUFFALO.  bulls  the  baSCS 

of     the     horns 

are  flattened  out.  This  horny  helmet,  from  under  which 
twinkle  little  fierce  eyes,  gives  the  animal  a  lowering,  sullen 
aspect,  in  strict  keeping  with  its  real  disposition. 

Hunters  sometimes  assert  that  the  Arnee  will  never  charge 
a  human  being  who  will  face  it ;  but  the  Cape  Buffalo  knows 


THE  CAPE  BUFFALO 


307 


no  such  restraint.  To  the  intruder  into  the  marshy  thickets 
it  is  far  more  dangerous  than  the  lion.  It  is  a  discon- 
certing moment  to  find  a  blindly  unreasoning  animal, 
dripping  with  mud  and  bellowing  with  rage,  suddenly 
launching  itself  upon  one  without  the  slightest  preliminary 
warning.  At  other  times  a  whole  herd  will  be  swept  by 
a  frantic  impulse,  which  sends  the  animals  crashing  through 
the  undergrowth  with  a  recklessness  that  ensures  the  weaker 
of  them  being  trampled  to  death.  In  chasing  the  Cape 
Buffalo  it  behoves  the  hunter  to  beware  of  a  wounded 
animal,  especially  a  bull,  which  will  seek  shelter  in  a  thick 
bush,  from  which  to  charge  immediately  it  sights  its  foe. 
The  danger  is  increased  by  the  natural  horny  helmet  making 
it  difficult  to  get  a  killing  shot  at  the  head,  even  at  close 
quarters. 

The  Cape  Buffalo  fears  nothing,  whether  it  be  on  two  or 
four  legs.  It  was  from  one  of  these  animals  that  Selous  had 
one  of  his  narrowest  escapes,  horse  and  man  being  over- 
turned in  an  irresistible  charge.  The  hunter  was  badly  hurt 
and  his  horse  had  to  be  shot.  It 
usually  takes  a  couple  of  lions  to 
pull  down  a  full  grown  bull, 
although  an  old  animal  has  gal- 
lantly staved  off  the  attack  of  no 
less  than  three  adult  carnivores ; 
and  it  is  no  unusual  thing  for  a  troop 
of  cow  Buffaloes  to  keep  lions  at  bay 
all  night  in  defence  of  their  calves. 

The  Short-horned  Buffalo  (Bos 
pumilus)  roams  the  plains  and 
highlands  of  Western  Africa.  It 
is  a  smaller  animal  than  the  Cape 
Buffalo,  varying  in  colour  from 
yellowish-red  to  black.  Though 
it  has  not  got  the  huge  flat  horns 
and  nothing  like  the  horny  frontlet,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
it  is  closely  allied  to  the  foregoing  species. 

The  Anoa  (Bos  depressicornis)  of  Celebes,  on  account  of  its 
slender  build,  its  small  size,  and  the  straightness  of  its  horns, 
was  formerly  considered  to  belong  to  the  antelopes.  On 


HORNS  OF  THE  AXOA. 


3o8  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

the  other  hand,  its  thin  covering  of  hair,  the  triangulation  of 
the  horns,  which  in  the  males  attain  a  length  of  two  feet, 
its  barrel-like  body,  and  its  fondness  for  wallowing  outweigh 
its  antelope  qualities. 


MUSK   OX   (Ovibos   moschatus). 
Plate  XXX.  Fig.  i. 

There  is  a  difficulty  in  assigning  this  rather  extraordinary 
animal  to  its  exact  place  among  the  Hollow-horned 
Ruminants.  As  indicated  in  its  generic  name,  Ovibos,  it 
appears  rather  to  form  a  link  between  the  Ox  and  the  Sheep. 
The  Musk  Ox  has  a  coat  of  fine  brown  wool  underneath  its 
outer  covering  of  very  long  hair,  which  reaches  nearly  to 
the  ground.  It  is  this  latter  which  causes  the  animal  to  look 
much  larger  than  it  really  is,  for  a  hunter  is  quite  satisfied  to 
capture  an  animal  weighing  between  three  and  four  hundred 
pounds.  But  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  male  is  the 
appearance  given  to  its  head  by  the  massive  horns,  the  bases 
of  which  are  spread  out  in  almost  exactly  similar  fashion  to 
those  of  the  Cape  Buffalo.  In  the  Musk  Ox  the  horns  take 
a  downward  direction,  and  when  they  do  curve  to  form 
sharply  pointed  hooks,  their  tips  end  in  about  a  line  with 
the  eyes. 

Fossil  remains  prove  that  ages  ago  the  Musk  Ox  inhabited 
Britain,  a  great  part  of  Europe,  and  Northern  Asia.  Why  it 
has  disappeared  completely  from  the  Eastern  Hemisphere 
no  man  can  tell,  but  it  is  certainly  now  restricted  to  North 
America,  practically  the  region  lying  between  Hudson  Bay 
and  the  mouth  of  the  river  Mackenzie. 

Musk  Oxen  are  gregarious,  travelling  in  bands  across  the 
barren  and  inhospitable  lands,  where  their  food,  especially 
in  winter,  is  chiefly  limited  to  lichens  and  mosses.  A  herd 
will  unite  to  beat  off  their  great  enemy,  the  Arctic  wolf  ;  and 
the  Eskimos  assert  that  even  bears  frequently  fall  victims  to 
their  sharp  and  powerful  horns.  Hunters,  however,  find  the 
Musk  Ox  by  no  means  difficult  to  approach  against  the 
wind.  If  attacked  from  several  points  at  once  they  form  a 
circle,  their  glaring,  blood-shot  eyes  bent  upon  the  baying 


SHEEP  AND  GOATS  309 

dogs  around  them.  This  huddling  together  affords  the 
hunter  an  excellent  opportunity  to  shoot  them  down.  Even 
if  the  herd  stampede,  very  often  curiosity  will  lead  some  of 
the  animals  to  return  to  inspect  a  killed  or  wounded  comrade, 
thus  laying  themselves  open  to  meet  the  same  fate. 

The  flesh  of  the  animal  has  a  musky  odour  which  is  very 
unpleasant  at  certain  seasons  in  the  year,  but  the  Eskimos 
and  Indians  are  not  troubled  with  fastidious  palates.  Apart 
from  food,  the  skin  of  the  Musk  Ox  is  a  valuable  sledge 
covering  in  these  inhospitable  regions  ;  and  it  always  forms 
useful  barter  for  ammunition,  &c.,  from  the  white  traders. 

SHEEP  AND   GOATS. 

In  form,  clothing,  and  habits  there  is  no  difficulty  in 
distinguishing  between  the  common  varieties  of  Sheep 
and  Goats.  Yet  if  we  attempt  to  fix  upon  the  real  distinc- 
tions which  separate  the  one  animal  from  the  other,  the  task 
speedily  appears  well-nigh  impossible.  The  coat,  on  the  face 
of  it,  would  appear  to  form  the  likeliest  aid,  but  it  fails  us  at 
the  outset.  The  woolly  coat  of  the  domestic  Sheep  is  due 
solely  to  the  influence  of  man  ;  wild  Sheep  do  not  possess  it ; 
and  if  tame  ones  are  allowed  to  run  wild  in  hot  countries 
they  soon  exchange  their  covering  of  wool  for  one  of  hair, 
like  that  of  the  Goats.  The  horn,  which  is  sometimes 
accepted  as  a  distinction,  has  no  real  value,  being  variable 
to  the  last  degree.  In  this  connection  the  Rev.  J.  G.  Wood 
mentions  a  woman  who  had  several  horns  removed  from 
her  head.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  the  horn  cannot  be 
accepted  as  affording  any  absolute  means  of  identification. 
The  beard  of  the  Goat  has  been  accepted  as  a  distinction, 
but,  as  some  of  the  Goats  have  no  beards,  while  some  of  the 
Sheep  possess  slight  ones,  it  is  evident  that  the  beard  forms 
no  real  distinction  at  all,  any  more  than  it  does  among  men. 
As  most  of  us  know,  there  are  some  races  of  men  in  which 
neither  sex  is  bearded,  while  there  are  others  in  which  both 
sexes  always  have  beards ;  and  in  our  own  race,  although 
the  rule  is  that  a  man  has  a  beard  and  the  woman  has  none, 
there  are  exceptional  cases  where  the  man  is  beardless  and 
the  woman  has  a  beard  which  any  man  might  envy.  So 


3io 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


while  we  place  the  Sheep  in  the  genus  Ovis  and  the  Goats 
in  the  Capra,  we  may  very  well  consider  that  the  terms  are 
almost  interchangeable,  trusting  to  the  descriptions  of  the 
various  selected  animals  to  afford  us  the  few  safe  means  of 
identification. 

FAMILY   OV1D1E   (SHEEP). 

SHEEP  (Ovis  aries). 
Coloured  Plate  XVIII.  Figs.  I  and  3. 

From  the  very  earliest  days  the  domesticated  Sheep  has 
been  among  the  most  valued   of   man's   possessions  ;    its 
history  is  blended  with  that  of  the  laws  and 
customs  of  nations  ;  writers,  sacred  and  pro- 
fane, historians  and   poets   of   all  times  have 
abounded  in  allusions  to  it ;  and  there  is  no 
more  interesting  and  beautiful  sight  than  hill 
and  valley  whitened    with   flocks  feeding   in 
peaceful  security.     Such  a  scene  takes  us  back 
to  the  patriarchal  days,  when  a  pastoral  life 
was  the   chief  condition   of   men,  and   when 
the  office  of  shepherd  was  an  occupation  of 
chiefs  and   even   princes.     The   Sheep   is   the 
first  animal  mentioned  by  name  in  the  sacred 
writings.     The    firstlings    of    the   flock   were 
offered   in   sacrifice   according   to   the  Jewish 
ritual ;   the  Lamb  was  a  type   of 
BONES  OF  THE   innocence  and  purity  ;  and  as  the 
*THE  SHEEP.F   Antitype  of  these  sacrifices  Christ 
is  expressly  called  the  '  Lamb  of 
God,  that  taketh  away  the  sins  of  the  world ' 
— '  a  Lamb  without  blemish  and  without  spot.' 
We  may  forgo  any  detailed   description   of 
an  animal  with  which  all  are  so  familiar,  simply 
remarking  that  in  many  of   the  domesticated 

.     ,.         T  ,.,,,          ,          ,  ,     .,      FOOT  OF  THE 

varieties  horns  are  so  little  developed  that  it        SHEEP. 
may  be  said  that  they  are  almost  absent.     In 
others  they  are  comparatively  large    in    the  male,  curving 
downwards    and    not    infrequently    upwards    again.      An 


THE  DOMESTIC  SHEEP  311 

irritated   ram   is   no   mean   opponent,  and   his   impetuous 
charge  will  lay  low  a  bull  at  the  first  blow. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  from  what  wild  species  the  domes- 
ticated Sheep  is  derived,  as  it  would  be  profitless  to  attempt 
to  enumerate  the  breeds,  which  in  every  country  present 
more  or  less  peculiar  modifications.  Sheep-breeders  every- 
where aim  at  producing  in  their  animals  either  specially  fine 
wool  or  meat  of  superior  quality,  and  in  some  of  even  the 
common  breeds  these  two  features  are  largely  combined. 
The  covering  of  the  wild  Sheep  consists  chiefly  of  hair,  with 


SKELETON   OF  THE  SHEEP. 


wool  at  the  roots,  much  as  a  coating  of  down  lies  beneath 
the  feathers  of  some  birds.  In  the  course  of  domestication 
the  hair  has  practically  disappeared,  while  the  wool  has  been 
developed  into  the  thick,  soft  fleece  that  contributes  so 
largely  to  the  clothing  of  mankind. 

Of  all  the  breeds  of  Sheep,  the  Merino  of  Spain  is  noted 
for  the  excellence  of  its  wool.  Unfortunately  the  British 
climate  is  unfavourable  to  its  introduction  into  our  own 
country,  but  it  has  been  transferred  to  many  parts  of  the 
world  with  excellent  results.  Australia  at  the  time  of  its 
discovery  possessed  no  Sheep  of  any  kind  of  its  own. 


3i2  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

Little  more  than  a  century  ago  a  couple  of  score  were 
imported  into  Sydney  from  India,  and  later  additional 
stock  was  introduced  from  England  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope;  the  latter  were  Merinoes. 

There  are  now  in  Australia  over  sixty  million  sheep,  or 
about  fifteen  per  head  of  the  population  ;  whereas  in  the 
British  Isles  there  is  not  one  animal  per  head.  New  Zealand 
received  its  first  Sheep  in  1840,  and  now  there  are  twenty 
millions — chiefly  the  Southdown  breed — on  the  sheep- 
farms  of  the  colony,  or  over  twenty-five  per  head  of  the 
population.  It  can  readily  be  seen  how  wool  and  mutton 
form  no  inconsiderable  share  of  the  wealth  of  our  kindred 
across  the  seas,  wealth  more  assured  and  enduring  than 
even  the  gold  that  has  been  mined  under  the  Southern 
Cross.  The  Argentine  Republic  possesses  over  seventy 
million  Sheep,  and  there  are  large  numbers  in  America 
and  South  Africa,  the  Merino  breed  largely  predominating. 

Mention  may  be  made  of  but  a  few  of  the  best  known  of 
our  native  breeds,  which  vary  considerably  in  size  and  in 
the  length  and  quality  of  their  wool.  They  thrive  best  in 
the  drier  regions  of  the  east  and  the  chalk  and  limestone 
areas  of  the  south.  Elsewhere  the  animals  flourish  best  on 
the  easily  drained  hillsides  of  the  west,  and  on  the  southern 
uplands  of  Scotland  rather  than  the  plains.  As  a  rule,  the 
Sheep  of  the  west  are  reared  mainly  for  food  ;  in  the  east 
the  quality  of  the  wool  is  a  very  great  consideration.  The 
humid  climate  of  Ireland  is  unfavourable  to  Sheep.  The 
Southdowns  of  the  chalk  hills  have  rather  small  heads, 
from  which  horns  are  absent.  They  are  noted  for  their 
fine,  short  wool,  and  they  yield  more  meat  than  other 
animals  of  anything  like  similar  type.  The  Norfolk  and 
Dorset  breeds  are  horned  in  both  sexes.  Of  the  long- 
woolled  breeds  the  Cotswold  Sheep  deserve  first  mention, 
if  only  for  the  fact  that  early  in  the  fifteenth  century  some 
of  them  were  imported  into  Spain.  There  they  were  crossed 
with  Merinoes,  resulting  in  an  improvement  even  in  the 
fleeces  of  the  famous  Spanish  Sheep.  Welsh  Sheep  thrive 
on  the  sparse  mountain  pastures  ;  they  are  small,  but  noted 
for  the  excellence  of  their  meat.  The  Cheviot,  its  location 
identified  in  its  name,  yields  wool  of  moderate  fineness  and 


THE  MOUFLON  313 

meat  of  good  quality.  The  Sheep  of  the  Shetlands  and 
Orkneys  are  small  and  hardy,  frequently  horned,  and  vary- 
ing in  colour  from  white  to  black.  Their  soft,  fine  wool  is 
largely  mixed  with  silky  hair. 

Some  breeds  of  domesticated  Sheep  have  remarkably 
broad  tails.  A  Palestine  variety  (Ovis  laticaudatus)  pos- 
sesses an  enormous,  heavy,  laterally  developed  tail,  which 
quite  commonly  reaches  a  weight  of  from  ten  to  forty 
pounds,  while  a  weight  of  sixty  or  seventy  pounds  is  not 
unknown.  Similar  animals  are  found  in  Tartary,  Arabia, 
Persia,  and  Barbary.  The  tip  of  the  tail  is  horny,  and  in 
many  cases  trails  upon  the  ground.  Very  often  animals 
are  supplied  by  the  shepherds  with  little  sledges  on  which 
to  support  their  specially  weighty  appendages.  The  fat 
tail  was  a  part  of  the  peace-offering  as  ordained  for  the 
Hebrews  (Lev.  iii.  9). 

MOUFLON  (Ovis  musimori). 
Coloured  Plate  XX.  Fig.  i. 

The  merest  glance  at  the  illustration  bears  out  the  earlier 
remarks  concerning  the  close  affinity  of  the  Sheep  and 
Goats.  In  appearance  the  animal  is  nothing  like  the 
domestic  Sheep,  yet  the  Mouflon  is  only  its  wild  relation 
of  Corsica  and  Sardinia.  Even  if  we  felt  inclined  to  query 
the  relationship  between  the  domestic  species  and  this  alert- 
eyed  mountain  creature,  the  animals  themselves  are  in  no 
doubt  upon  the  matter.  A  Mouflon  will  frequently  stray 
into  the  valleys  and  join  a  flock  of  tame  Sheep,  and  a 
deserted  lamb  will  seek  comfort  with  the  Mouflons,  if 
opportunity  is  only  afforded  it. 

The  Mouflon  only  stands  about  thirty  inches  at  the 
shoulder,  but  what  it  lacks  in  size  is  atoned  for  in  vigour, 
for  it  is  by  no  means  the  rather  helpless  animal  of  the 
domesticated  kind.  It  is  active  and  agile,  springing  up 
rocky  heights  with  the  greatest  ease  and  rapidity  ;  and  so 
difficult  of  approach  is  it,  that  only  exceptionally  good 
shots  can  hope  to  add  it  to  their  bag. 

In  colour  the  animal  is  brownish-grey  or  foxy  red,  with 


3i4  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

various  streaks  upon  the  body,  and  the  under  parts  white. 
The  horns  vary  from  twenty  to  thirty  inches  in  length.  In 
summer  the  hair  is  close,  like  that  of  the  deer;  in  winter 
it  is  rough  and  wavy,  concealing  at  its  roots  a  fine,  white, 
woolly  down.  The  young,  when  first  born,  are  covered 
with  a  soft,  grey  fleece,  which  changes  into  hair  as  the 
animal  grows  older. 

In  the  warmer  parts  of  the  year  the  Mouflon  keeps  to 
the  higher  elevations,  living  chiefly  on  the  young  shoots  of 
Alpine  plants;  but  with  the  approach  of  the  cold  season 
the  animal  descends  to  the  lower  slopes  and  feeds  mainly 
on  grass.  It  was  formerly  very  abundant,  and  at  one  time 
as  many  as  four  or  five  hundred  animals  were  killed  in  a 
single  drive.  Nowadays  the  herds  are  only  parties  number- 
ing about  half  a  dozen,  consisting  of  a  ram  and  several 
ewes;  and  a  well-organised  hunt  would  not  witness  the 
capture  of  more  than  fifty  animals. 

ARGALI  (Ovis  ammon). 
Coloured  Plate  XX.  Fig.  3. 

The  Argali,  the  largest  of  the  wild  Sheep,  is  a  handsome 
animal  found  in  Mongolia,  Eastern  Siberia,  Tibet,  and 
Central  Asia  generally.  Any  differences  in  the  animals  of 
these  regions  are  mainly  concerned  with  their  size  and  a 
varying  twist  in  their  horns.  Early  naturalists  regarded  the 
Argali  and  the  mouflon  as  the  same  species,  but  comparison 
of  the  two  animals  figured  on  the  plate  appears  almost 
sufficient  in  itself  to  negative  the  idea. 

In  summer  the  animal's  smooth  coat  is  a  dark  greyish- 
brown  above  and  whitish  below;  in  winter  it  assumes  a 
reddish  tinge  and  the  hair  is  harsher.  But  the  most  promi- 
nent feature  is  the  great  horns,  massive  and  roughly  ringed, 
curving  downwards  and  then  upwards.  In  the  finer  speci- 
mens the  horns  attain  a  length  of  forty-eight  inches,  with  a 
girth  of  twenty  at  the  base.  Even  an  animal  of  only  average 
size  carries  a  weight  upon  its  head  of  quite  forty  pounds. 

The  Argali  is  less  of  a  wanderer  than  many  other  species 
of  wild  Sheep,  frequenting  the  same  particular  mountain 


Plate  XX. 


1.  Mouflon 


2.  Chamois 


3.  Argali 


VARIOUS  WILD  SHEEP  315 

region,  unless  there  is  a  failure  in  the  supply  of  natural 
food.  It  is  an  extremely  hardy  animal,  even  in  winter 
seldom  descending  lower  than  12,000  feet,  at  which  ele- 
vation only  lichens  are  procurable,  and  even  that  poor  food 
is  only  available  in  the  most  exposed  situations,  where  the 
icy  blasts  have  swept  away  the  deep  snow. 

Travellers  assert  that  the  Argali  can  leap  from  a  height  of 
thirty  feet,  alighting  without  the  semblance  of  a  stumble. 
Inhabiting  only  the  most  barren  and  desolate  mountain 
regions,  the  rams  in  particular  are  considered  to  be  most 
difficult  animals  to  stalk.  Not  only  when  they  are  feeding, 
but  also  when  they  are  sleeping,  the  Argalis  post  sentinels ; 
and  from  the  very  nature  of  the  country  it  is  almost  an 
impossibility  to  approach  within  gunshot  without  the 
animals  taking  alarm. 

There  are  numerous  other  species  of  wild  Sheep  that  call 
for  only  brief  attention.  The  Kamschatkan  Wild  Sheep 
(Ovis  nivicola)  and  the  Pamir  Wild  Sheep  (Ovis  poli)  have 
their  habitat  indicated  in  their  names.  This  last-named  is 
also  known  as  Marco  Polo's  Sheep,  so  called  because  the 


HORNS  OF  THE  PAMIR  SHEEP. 


famous  traveller  was  the  first  to  describe  the  animal.  The 
Urial  (Ovis  vignei),  a  bearded  Sheep,  is  found  in  the  Western 
Punjab,  Baluchistan,  Afghanistan,  and  part  of  Persia ; 
under  the  name  Sha  the  same  animal  extends  as  far  as 
Northern  Tibet.  No  other  Old  World  Sheep  has  so  wide 
a  range. 

The  Barbary  Wild  Sheep  (Ovis  tmgelaphus),  Plate 
XXIX.  Fig.  i,  or  Arui,  is  the  only  wild  member  of  the 
family  found  in  the  whole  of  Africa.  In  appearance  it 
differs  from  any  other  species  in  the  possession  of  very 


316  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

long  hair  on  the  chest  and  fore  legs.  In  one  habit  at  least 
it  is  very  unlike  any  of  the  foregoing  members  of  the 
family.  In  the  face  of  danger  it  prefers  to  hide  rather 
than  take  to  immediate  flight,  and  as  its  colour  largely 
approximates  to  its  ordinary  surroundings,  so  long  as  it 
lies  perfectly  still,  the  hunter  can  perceive  it  only  with  the 
greatest  difficulty. 

The  Bighorn  (Ovis  canadensis)  is  the  American  Argali, 
found  chiefly  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  six  inches 
higher  than  the  Asiatic  species,  and  possesses  much  the 
same  massive  horns.  It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that 
a  flock  of  these  animals  will  not  hesitate  to  leap  down  a 
cliff  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height.  Hunters  experi- 
ence great  difficulty  in  approaching  the  Bighorn  ;  but  the 
Indians  fasten  horns  to  their  heads,  and  thus  frequently 
deceive  the  animals  until  they  are  within  shooting  distance. 
But  the  Bighorn  is  getting  increasingly  rare,  and  the  time 
is  approaching  when  hunters,  white  or  red,  will  cease  to 
count  the  animal  among  their  spoils. 


FAMILY  CAPRA  (GOATS). 
COMMON  GOAT  (Copra  hircus). 
Coloured  Plate  XVIII.  Fig.  4. 

In  the  sheep  family,  and  especially  the  domesticated 
breeds,  the  horns  curve  over  the  side  of  the  face  ;  but  in 
the  Goats  the  spiral  or  curving  adornments 
appear  close  together  just  over  the  eyes,  rising 
upwards  with  a  backward  sweep,  often  to  a 
great  length  in  the  males.  In  some  species 
the  horns  are  absent  in  both  sexes  ;  in  others 
those  of  the  male  are  quite  unlike  those  of  the 
female  ;  and  in  yet  other  cases  an  animal  may 
possess  four  horns.  It  should  be  noted  that 

FOOT  OF  THE  ~  ,. 

GOAT.          m  Goats  generally  the   horns   are   less  cylin- 
drical than  they  are  in  the  sheep.     Most  Goats 
are  bearded ;  and  all  the  males  are  marked  by  a  peculiar, 
almost  offensive,  odour,  which  is  given  off  by  a  scent  gland. 


THE  COMMON  GOAT 


The  common  Goat  for  long  ages  has  been  domesticated 
for  the  sake  of  its  flesh  and  milk,  and  for  its  coat,  which 
is  usually  less  woolly  and  coarser  than  that  of  the  sheep. 
There  is,  however,  as  much  diversity  in  the  covering  as  there 
is  in  the  horns.  In  some  kinds  the  hair  is  as  short  as  that 
of  a  horse,  while  in  others  it  nearly  reaches  the  ground.  In 
colour  it  may  be  white  or  black  or  any  shade  between.  The 
ears  may  be  short  and  upright,  or  long  and  pendent ;  and 
altogether  some  of  the  types  are  so  unlike  as  to  cause  one 
to  doubt  that  they  belong  to  the  same  family. 


SKELETON  OF  THE   COMMON   GOAT. 

The  domestic  Goat  is  believed  to  be  descended  from  the 
ibex.  It  was  one  of  the  clean  beasts,  which  was  permitted 
as  a  sacrifice  and  for  food  to  the  Israelites.  Among  the 
patriarchs  large  herds  of  Goats  denoted  their  wealth  ;  and 
in  many  countries,  especially  in  the  East,  there  are  vast 
herds  that  are  still  a  source  of  wealth  and  comfort  in  the 
regions  they  occupy.  The  same  shepherd  who  looks  after 
the  sheep  often  also  herds  the  Goats,  and  they  mingle  in 
their  search  for  food.  At  night,  or  when  being  driven,  they 
keep  apart  in  separate  droves.  In  such  cities  as  Damascus 


3i8  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

the  milkseller  drives  his  Goats  through  the  streets,  milking 
at  the  door  of  the  house  the  particular  animal  which  the 
customer  prefers. 

Although,  like  the  sheep,  the  Goat  will  feed  upon  grass  or 
hay,  it  has  a  decided  liking  for  bark,  and  is  in  consequence 
best  kept  where  it  can  work  no  harm  to  the  trunks  of  young 
trees.  Goats  have  done  much  to  exterminate  shrubby 
vegetation  in  Southern  Syria,  and  have  thus  assisted  to 
keep  the  country  in  a  desert  condition.  Goats  were  in- 
troduced into  St.  Helena  in  1513.  The  result  has  been 
that  the  island  forests  were  thinned,  involving  the  total  dis- 
appearance of  many  valuable  trees,  among  which  was  the 
ebony. 

The  Goat  is  not  an  important  animal  in  the  British  Isles  ; 
in  fact,  it  is  little  reared  anywhere  amid  cultivated  tracts. 
In  disposition  it  is  more  restless,  curious,  and  adventurous 
than  the  sheep,  and  ordinary  fences  are  useless  in  restricting 
it  to  any  given  area ;  and  consequently  goat-herding  is  only 
important  where  there  are  tracts  of  wild  land  over  which 
the  animals  can  wander  almost  at  will.  There  are  quite 
a  dozen  species  of  wild  Goat,  and  of  the  domesticated  kind 
there  are  varieties  almost  innumerable.  A  selection  of  each, 
therefore,  must  serve  for  the  whole  family. 

ANGORA   GOAT   (Capra  hircus,  var.}. 
Plate  XXX.  Fig.  2. 

The  Angora  Goat  is  one  of  the  most  elegant  of  all  the 
numerous  domesticated  varieties.  It  is  usually  of  a  milk- 
white  colour,  and  has  black,  spreading,  spirally-twisted 
horns  and  pendulous  ears.  Its  hair,  long,  wavy,  and  silky, 
is  of  remarkable  fineness,  and  it  covers  the  body  of  the 
animal  in  long  spiral  ringlets.  The  herdsmen  regularly 
wash  and  comb  the  fleeces  to  prevent  the  hair  matting 
and  deteriorating. 

The  hair  was  first  brought  to  England  under  the  name 
'  mohair,'  the  Turks  at  first  strongly  objecting  to  its  expor- 
tation. Since  that  time  the  Angora  Goat  has  been  intro- 
duced with  remarkable  success  into  the  Southern  United 


THE  IBEX  319 

States,  Australia,  and  South  Africa.  The  last  named  exports 
hair  annually  to  the  value  of  sometimes  as  much  as  three- 
quarters  of  a  million  pounds  sterling.  In  England  the 
Yorkshire  mills  absorb  most  of  the  imported  raw  material, 
which  is  converted  into  fine  shawls,  velveteens,  braidings, 
and  trimmings  for  gentlemen's  coats. 

KASHMIR  GOAT  (Capra  hircus,  var.). 

The  Kashmir  Goat  is  really  most  abundant  in  Tibet  and 
the  Kirghiz  steppes  region  ;  but  it  has  been  introduced  even 
into  Central  Europe.  It  is  a  small  animal  which  is  highly 
prized  for  its  long,  fine,  silky  fleece,  which  varies  in  colour 
and  weight  with  the  altitude  at  which  the  Goat  is  pastured 
on  the  high  mountain  slopes.  In  the  lowest  vales  the 
animal  is  nearly  pure  white  ;  it  takes  on  a  yellowish  tinge 
in  the  more  elevated  regions  ;  while  it  is  of  a  bright  ochre 
colour  in  the  highest  altitudes.  Below  the  coarse  upper 
hair  is  fine  curled  wool  close  to  the  skin,  and  it  is  this 
fine  material  which  is  converted  into  the  beautiful  and 
costly  shawls  for  which  Kashmir  has  long  been  famous.  It 
is  said  that  an  animal  only  yields  three  ounces  of  the  finest 
wool,  and  the  product  of  ten  Goats  is  required  to  make  a 
shawl  one  and  a  half  yards  square.  The  fabric  is  woven  by 
slow  hand  processes,  a  coloured  pattern  often  occupying 
four  persons  for  a  whole  year.  British  and  French  machine 
weavers  now  manufacture  the  closest  imitations  of  the 
coveted  Kashmir  speciality,  at  a  price  far  less  than  the 
patient  Asiatic  craftsman  can  produce  them. 

IBEX  (Capra  ibex). 
Coloured  Plate  XXI.  Fig.  i. 

Of  the  wild  Goats  the  Ibex  is  the  likeliest  forbear  of  the 
domesticated  species.  It  is  the  wild  Goat  of  Europe  and 
Western  Asia,  and  there  are  varieties  in  the  Himalaya, 
Abyssinia,  and  Southern  Palestine  and  Arabia.  It  was  this 
last  named  which  is  believed  to  have  been  hunted  by  Jacob, 
when  he  was  in  search  of  venison  for  his  father,  Isaac. 


32o  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

Of  all  the  varieties  the  best  known  is  the  Ibex  of  the 
European  Alps.  In  one  sense  it  can  scarcely  be  called  a 
wild  Goat  nowadays,  for  it  is  practically  restricted  to  the 
Piedmont  side  of  Monte  Rosa,  where  the  Italian  Govern- 
ment has  protected  it  from  complete  extermination.  Wild 
Goats  as  a  rule  frequent  more  rugged  country  than  even  the 
wild  sheep  ;  the  Pamir  Sheep  is  found  at  a  height  of  20,000 
feet,  but  even  then  it  is  still  in  comparatively  open  country. 

The  Ibex  stands  about  three  and  a  half  feet  high.  Its 
rather  harsh  hair  is  a  deep  hoary  brown  in  summer,  and 
yellowish  in  winter.  To  support  the  thick,  short  body  the 
legs  are  stout  and  strong ;  the  fore  legs  are  slightly  shorter 
than  the  hind  ones,  and  hence  it  is  better  able  to  ascend 
than  descend,  and  in  flight  always  seeks  the  highest  points. 
It  is  wonderfully  sure-footed,  and  can  descend  clefts,  or 
1  chimneys '  as  they  are  called,  simply  by  cannoning  from 
one  side  to  the  other. 

The  horns  of  the  animal,  transversely  ridged,  are  quite 
two  feet  long  in  the  male.  It  used  to  be  believed  that  when 
the  Ibex  climbed  to  some  inaccessible  spot  from  which  it 
could  not  retrace  its  steps,  it  gathered  its  feet  together,  bent 
its  chin  on  its  breast,  and  flung  itself  off  the  precipice,  falling 
on  its  horns,  and  bounding  from  ledge  to  ledge  until  it 
reached  level  ground.  Suppose  this  were  really  so  in  the 
big-horned  males,  what  was  to  become  of  the  more  valuable 
females  when  they  were  in  a  like  predicament  ?  Their 
smaller  horns  would  certainly  be  unable  to  render  similar 
useful  service.  It  has  been  clearly  proved  that  the  horns 
have  no  preservative  uses,  a  remark  which  equally  applies 
to  the  argali,  another  animal  that  was  also  once  connected 
with  the  pretty  theory. 

The  Ibex  is  shy  and  wary  to  a  degree.  Hunting  the 
animal  is  dangerous,  not  only  on  account  of  the  precipitous 
regions  it  frequents,  but  also  because  when  pressed  it  will 
turn  on  its  pursuers  with  quick  impetuosity,  with  the  chance 
of  a  hunter  being  hurled  down  some  steep  declivity.  The 
female  seldom  has  more  than  one  young  at  a  time.  She  is 
a  devoted  mother,  and  will  fight  even  an  eagle  to  the  death 
in  defence  of  her  offspring.  When  caught  young  the 
animal  is  easily  tamed  ;  it  is,  however,  rather  an  unsatis- 


PLATE  XXX. 


I.     MUSK    OX. 

(See  page  308) 


2.     ANGORA    GOATS. 

(See  page  318) 


PLATE  XXXI. 


i.     TAHR.  2.     MARKHOR. 

(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


ASIATIC  GOATS  321 

factory  pet,  usually  preferring   to    spend  the   greater  part 
of  its  time  on  the  roof  of  the  house. 

The  Himalayan  species  (Capra  sabirica)  is  a  very  similar 
animal  to  the  Alpine  Ibex.  A  well-grown  buck  will  stand 
forty  or  forty-two  inches  at  the  shoulder ;  a  doe  is 
usually  quite  one-third  smaller.  Horns  frequently  attain 
a  length  of  forty-two  inches,  though  they  have  been  known 
to  exceed  four  feet.  Frequenting  varying  altitudes  accord- 
ing to  the  season  of  the  year,  they  are  so  familiar  with  the 
noise  of  falling  rocks  and  avalanches  that  they  do  not 
necessarily  take  alarm  at  the  sound  of  a  gun  ;  but  let  one 
of  the  animals  perceive  anything  suspicious,  and  it  will 
issue  a  warning  whistle  that  will  send  the  herd  madly  racing 
to  a  place  of  safety. 

MARKHOR  (Capra  falconeri). 
Plate  XXXI.  Fig.  2. 

The  Markhor,  the  king  of  wild  Goats,  inhabiting  the 
North-west  of  India,  Afghanistan,  and  neighbouring  regions, 
is  larger  than  the  ibex.  Its  great  flattened  horns  sometimes 
exceed  five  feet  in  length  ;  they  are  twisted,  but  with  only  a 
few  turns.  Like  the  ibex  the  males  have  a  large  black 
beard,  and  in  the  older  animals  the  long  hair  is  extended 
to  the  chest  and  shoulders,  very  much  in  the  same  fashion 
as  the  Barbary  Sheep.  It  seeks  rocky  mountain  forests, 
and  consequently  can  reach  cover  more  quickly  than  in  the 
open  mountain  country.  The  Markhor  has  but  little  under- 
fur,  and  the  cold  weather  causes  it  to  descend  to  com- 
paratively low  regions.  An  animal  in  confinement  at  the 
Zoological  Gardens,  notwithstanding  it  was  hampered 
by  a  heavy  chain,  always  contrived  to  reach  the  top  of 
the  wall  of  its  pen. 

^TAHR  (Hemitragus  jemlaicus). 
Plate  XXXI.  Fig.  i. 

The  Tahr,  a  Himalayan  Goat-like  animal,  is  one  of 
several  species  that  differ  in  various  particulars  from  the 

22 


322  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

true  Goats,  but  especially  in  the  absence  of  a  beard.  The 
male  is  generally  from  three  to  three  and  a  half  feet  in 
height  at  the  shoulder  ;  the  horns  seldom  exceed  fifteen 
inches  in  length.  The  doe,  a  smaller  animal,  has  four 
teats  instead  of  two,  as  in  the  sheep  and  other  Goats.  The 
coat  is  fawn  brown  in  colour,  arid  is  long  on  the  neck, 
chest,  and  shoulders.  The  home  of  the  Tahr  is  chiefly  in 
the  elevated  forest  regions  of  the  Himalaya  ;  and  it  fre- 
quents such  almost  inaccessible  spots  that,  when  shot,  the 
animal  often  falls  down  precipices,  where  the  hunter  cannot 
secure  his  prize. 

Other  wild  Goats  are  the  Pasang  (capra  czgagrus),  a 
Persian  species,  with  large  scimitar-shaped  horns ;  the 
Spanish  Wild  Goat  (Capra  pyrenaica),  often  mistakenly 
called  the  ibex,  which  is  found  in  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
central  mountains  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula  ;  and  the  Tur, 
or  Caucasian  Wild  Goat  (Capra  cylindricornis),  which  is 
very  closely  allied  to  the  sheep.  But  in  form  and  habit 
they  differ  only  in  unimportant  details  from  the  last  two 
species  more  fully  described. 

FAMILY   ANTILOPID^   (ANTELOPES). 

This  great  family  of  the  Hollow-horned  Ruminants 
includes  a  vast  number  of  animals,  some  rivalling  the 
largest  oxen  in  stature,  and  some  being  so  small  that 
they  are  to  the  Eland  and  Gemsbok  what  the  toy  terrier 
is  to  the  mastiff  or  Newfoundland  dog.  The  majority  of 
them  are  medium-sized  animals  of  graceful  build  and 
about  the  same  calibre  as  the  deer.  Like  the  wild  sheep 
and  goats,  their  flesh  is  excellent  eating,  but  they  only 
come  within  reach  of  the  hunter  or  the  natives  of  the 
regions  inhabited  by  the  different  species  of  the  family. 

The  Antelopes  are  divided  and  subdivided  by  zoologists 
into  many,  more  or  less,  complicated  sub-families,  differing 
from  each  other  in  many  cases  in  points  almost  too  trivial 
for  notice  in  a  general  survey.  In  not  a  few  cases  it  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  the  animals  from  oxen  on  the  one 
hand  and  goats  on  the  other.  Really,  the  great  family  is 


THE  ANTELOPE  FAMILY  323 

confined  to  the  Old  World,  Africa  with  nearly  a  hundred 
species  containing  the  bulk  of  it ;  in  Europe  and  Asia  there 
are  but  a  few  ;  and  in  North-west  America  a  still  less  number 
of  species. 

Usually  the  body  of  an  Antelope  is  supported  on  slender 
but  vigorous  limbs,  constructed  for  the  utmost  speed, 
the  hinder  legs  being  the  longer  and  the  haunches  elevated 
accordingly.  The  head,  beautiful  in  contour,  is  almost 
invariably  small.  The  eyes  are  large,  full,  and  brilliant. 
In  most  cases  both  sexes  have  horns,  always  cylindrical  and 
set  closely  together.  Many  of  the  horns  are  marked  by 
transverse  ridges  ;  some  are  perfectly  straight ;  some  are 
spirally  twisted  ;  and  they  are  hooked  backwards  or,  in  few 
cases,  forwards.  There  are  no  upper  incisor  or  canine 
teeth,  but  in  the  lower  jaw  are  three  incisors  and  one 
canine  on  each  side.  There  are  twenty-four  molars,  six  on 
each  side,  top  and  bottom.  The  hair  is  generally  sleek  and 
close. 

Practically  all  the  Antelopes  inhabit  open  plains,  eating 
grass  and  other  vegetable  food.  They  are  as  fleet  as  the 
wind,  and  as  their  speed  is  their  only  defence,  they  are 
endowed  with  sight,  hearing,  and  smell  to  perfection, 
allowing  them  to  perceive  the  ^approach  of  enemies  while 
they  are  yet  at  a  distance.  There  are  many  regions, 
particularly  in  South  Africa,  where  Antelopes  once  roamed 
practically  undisturbed,  but  as  these  tracts  are  more  and 
more  opened  up  to  civilisation  and  human  society  advances, 
the  Antelopes  retreat  to  the  still  further  wilds  and  solitudes. 

It  is  impossible  to  include  many  of  the  different  species, 
but  the  following  selection  may  be  accepted  as  typical 
representatives  of  the  great  Antelope  family. 

CHAMOIS  (Rupicapra  tragus}. 
Coloured  Plate  XX.  Fig.  2. 

The  Chamois  is  sometimes  classed  with  the  goats,  some- 
times with  the  Antelopes,  while  some  zoologists  prefer 
to  separate  it  into  a  distinct  group.  It  may  best  be 
accepted  as  the  only  Antelope  of  Europe,  being  an  inhabi- 
tant of  the  Alps,  Carpathians,  Greece,  and  the  Caucasus. 


324  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

In  size,  and  especially  in  the  appearance  of  its  head,  the 
Chamois  generally  resembles  a  large  common  goat.  Its 
dark  brown  hair,  close,  thick,  long,  and  coarse,  with  an 
undercovering  of  woolly  fur,  is  well  calculated  to  repel  cold, 
and  also  to  protect  the  animal  against  bruises,  to  which  it  is 
constantly  liable.  The  tint  of  the  head  is  lighter  than  that  of 
the  body,  except  for  a  dark  streak  from  the  eye  to  the  corner 
of  the  mouth.  The  animal's  horns  are  black,  smooth,  and 
straight  for  two-thirds  of  their  length  of  six  to  ten  inches, 
when  they  suddenly  curve  backwards  into  a  hook.  The 
hoofs  are  concave  at  the  base,  there  being  a  projecting  edge 
on  the  outside  admirably  adapted  to  avail  itself  of  any 
little  unevenness  in  naked  granite  or  icy  glacier.  It  is  said 
that  the  Chamois  can  gather  its  four  feet  together  and  stand 
on  a  rocky  pinnacle  the  top  of  which  is  only  the  size  of  a 
crown  piece. 

The  Chamois  is  really  a  mountain  forest  dweller,  but  in 
summer,  numbers  of  the  animals  always  resort  to  the  more 
open  mountain  heights  and  plains,  in  families  or  small 
flocks  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty.  The  hunting  of  the 
Chamois  is  a  most  perilous  undertaking,  always  with  the 
possibility  of  falling  over  the  brink  of  a  precipice,  or  of 
being  buried  in  some  chasm  beneath  the  treacherous 
snow. 

When  feeding  upon  the  herbage  of  the  mountain  sides 
the  herd  is  always  protected  by  a  sentinel,  placed  on  some 
adjacent  rock  which  commands  a  view  of  every  way  of 
approach.  When  danger  threatens  it  makes  a  loud  hissing 
noise,  and  off  the  creatures  bound  where  the  eye  can  mark 
no  footing,  from  crag  to  crag,  from  point  to  point ;  they 
clear  the  chasm,  they  sweep  over  the  glacier,  they  throw 
themselves  down  the  precipice,  pitching  as  if  by  a  miracle 
on  the  slightest  projection.  It  naturally  follows  that  to  be 
successful  in  his  quest  the  hunter  must  possess  the  highest 
skill  and  uncommon  powers  of  endurance. 

The  skin  of  the  animal  is  manufactured  into  a  soft, 
pliable  leather,  often  called  wash  or  buff  leather,  which 
is  exceedingly  useful  for  polishing  purposes.  More  often 
than  not  the  so-called  Chamois  leather  was  once  the  cover- 
ing of  the  common  goat  or  the  sheep. 


THE  GAZELLES  325 

GAZELLE    (Gazella  dorcas). 
Coloured  Plate  XXI.  Fig.  3. 

The  Gazelle,  of  which  there  are  at  least  a  score  of  species, 
is  one  of  the  most  typical  of  the  Antelopes.  One  of  the 
best  known  is  the  one  figured  on  the  plate.  Its  specific 
name  is  familiar  to  all  those  acquainted  with  the  Scriptures 
as  that  of  the  '  certain  disciple  named  Tabitha,  which  by 
interpretation  is  called  Dorcas,'  i.e.,  a  Gazelle,  who  was 
restored  to  life  by  St.  Peter  (Acts  ix.  36,  &c.).  It  has  a  very 
wide  range  of  country — Algeria,  Egypt,  Palestine,  Syria, 
and  parts  of  Asia  Minor.  Under  the  name  of  the  Roe  are 
many  Biblical  allusions  to  the  animal,  praising  its  swiftness, 
grace,  and  gentleness  ;  and  in  all  ages  it  has  been  eulogised 
by  poetical  writers. 

The  Gazelle,  only  two  feet  high  at  the  shoulder,  is  a 
beautifully  sleek  animal,  light  fawn  colour  on  the  back, 
passing  into  a  brown  band  along  the  sides,  which  forms  an 
abrupt  border  to  the  white  of  the  under  parts.  The  hind- 
quarters are  also  mainly  white.  The  face  is  curiously 
marked  with  two  stripes,  one  dark  and  one  light.  Its  eyes 
are  large,  soft,  and  lustrous.  Its  whole  appearance  well 
harmonises  with  its  customary  desert  surroundings.  The 
horns  seldom  exceed  thirteen  inches  in  length.  The  legs  of 
the  animal  are  as  slender  as  a  reed,  by  which  it  is  enabled 
to  skim  over  the  ground  almost  like  a  bird,  often  taking 
leaps  of  a  yard  in  height  as  it  pursues  its  rapid  flight. 
Xo  wild  beast  ever  attempts  to  catch  it  in  open  chase ;  it 
can  only  be  struck  down  by  stealing  upon  it  unobserved. 
The  graceful  creature  is  easily  tamed,  and  is  always  a  great 
favourite  in  Syria. 

The  Indian  Gazelle  (Gazella  bennetti)  ranges  through 
Central  and  North-west  India,  Baluchistan,  and  Persia. 
It  is  most  abundant  in  absolutely  desert  regions. 
Tame  Gazelles  readily  herd  with  goats ;  and  it  is  no 
unusual  thing  even  for  wild  ones  to  join  a  herd  of  their 
own  accord.  One  of  the  largest  of  the  family  is  the 
Senegal  Gazelle  (Gazella  mohr),  which  is  thirty-two  inches 
high,  with  horns  over  a  foot  in  length. 


3*6 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


SPRINGBOK  (Gazella  fachore). 

This  animal  is  practically  the  gazelle  of  South  Africa, 
gaining  its  name  from  its  habit  of  leaping  up  seven  or 
eight,  or  sometimes  as  many  as  twelve  feet  when  it  is  in 
full  flight.  Its  specific  name  means  a  good  dancer.  Before 
the  South  African  War  the  animal  was  found  in  the  north- 
west of  Cape  Colony  and  the  Transvaal ;  but  the  Kalahari 
Desert  and  adjacent  regions  are  where  the  Springbok  is 
now  found  in  greatest  numbers. 

In  form  and  colour  and  horns  the  animal  closely 
resembles  the  gazelle,  though  it  usually  stands  six  or  seven 
inches  taller.  A  distinguishing  mark  of  the  species  is  a 

line  of  long  white  hairs  arising 
from  between  a  double  fold  of 
the  skin  along  the  middle  of  the 
back ;  in  a  state  of  rest  the  edges 
of  the  fold  lie  close,  so  as  to 
conceal  in  a  great  measure  the 
snowy  stripe ;  but  as  soon  as  the 
animal  leaps,  the  long  white  patch 
becomes  visible,  and  has  rather  a 
startling  effect. 

The   most    interesting    part    of 
the     history     of     the    Springbok 

relates  to  its  occasional  migrations  from  the  semi- 
desert  regions  it  inhabits,  when  in  a  season  of  drought 
no  thunderstorms  replenish  the  pools,  every  green  thing 
withers,  and  the  whole  scene  becomes  one  of  barren  deso- 
lation. Before  the  settlement  of  South  Africa  had  made 
such  progress,  and  when  the  Springbok  roamed  the  wilds 
in  countless  thousands,  there  was  no  more  interesting  sight 
in  the  whole  of  the  African  continent  than  a  herd  of  Spring- 
boks, driven  by  necessity  to  seek  more  fertile  plains  whereon 
to  rear  the  young  fawns. 

Gordon  Cumming  graphically  describes  the  first  of  these 
migrating  herds  that  he  had  seen,  and  mentions  that  for 
two  hours  he  watched  the  herd  moving  in  a  solid  mass, 
measuring  at  least  half  a  mile  in  width.  These  moving 
herds  are  called  '  trekbokken/  and  they  are  of  such  vast 


HORNS  OF  THE  SPRINGBOK. 


•.  : : :  -•  '•  : 

•••..•    .vsvtv 


Plate  XXI. 


4.\Vaterbuck 


THE  GEMSBOK  327 

dimensions  that  a  lion  which  has  tried  to  snatch  a  Spring- 
bok out  of  a  herd  has  been  unable  to  extricate  himself,  and 
in  the  most  humiliating  manner  has  been  obliged  to  march 
with  the  herd,  unable  even  to  feed  upon  any  of  the  animals 
which  pressed  him  on  every  side.  A  flock  of  sheep  has 
also  been  enveloped  in  one  of  these  '  trekbokken '  and 
carried  off. 

The  ordinary  migrations  of  the  Springbok  are  in  an 
easterly  direction,  but  at  intervals  of  about  twenty  years 
an  opposite  course  is  taken.  After  existing  for  months 
without  water,  the  animals  seem  to  be  impelled  to  slake  a 
suddenly  tormenting  thirst.  Only  a  few  years  ago  there 
was  a  great  '  trek '  to  the  sea,  where  the  creatures  drank 
greedily  and  then  died  in  tens  of  thousands.  For  many 
miles  the  dead  bodies  lay  along  the  shore,  presently  to 
putrefy  and  drive  the  few  inhabitants  of  the  region  far 
inland  for  fear  of  pestilence. 

GEMSBOK  (Oryx  gazella). 

There  are  half  a  dozen  species  of  the  genus  Oryx,  ranging 
throughout  many  of  the  desert  regions  of  Africa  and  extend- 
ing into  the  south-west  of  Asia,  The  Gemsbok,  one  of  the 
finest  of  the  group,  is  a  South  African  Antelope,  chiefly 
roaming  the  Kalahari  region.  It  stands  nearly  four  feet 
high  at  the  shoulder,  and  is  generally  about  the  size  of  the 
domestic  ass.  In  colour  it  is  greyish  above,  deepening  in 
shade  on  the  haunches  and  the  upper  parts  of  the  limbs, 
a  black  flank  stripe  separating  it  from  the  lighter  under 
parts.  There  are  distinctive  markings  on  the  face,  a  black 
patch  appears  on  the  forehead,  and  similarly  coloured  stripes 
run  from  the  horns,  enveloping  the  eye  and  reaching  nearly 
to  the  muzzle.  The  long,  straight  horns,  as  in  some  other 
species  of  Antelopes,  are  sometimes  longer  in  the  females 
than  in  the  males.  For  half  their  length  they  are  very 
definitely  ringed,  after  which  they  proceed  to  sharp  points 
that  form  rather  terrible  weapons. 

The  natives  of  South  Africa  often  asserted  that  the  Gems- 
bok was  quite  independent  of  water,  which  was  in  due 
course  confirmed  by  Gordon  Cumming,  who  says  that  the 


328  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

animal '  thrives  and  attains  high  condition  in  barren  regions 
where  it  might  be  imagined  that  a  locust  would  not  find 
subsistence.  From  my  own  observation  and  the  repeated 
reports  both  of  the  Boers  and  the  aborigines,  I  am  con- 
vinced it  never  by  any  chance  tastes  water.'  This  applies 
with  equal  truth  to  many  Antelopes  that  roam  arid  regions. 
The  animals  require  moisture,  which  they  procure  from 
various  succulent  plants  that  collect  and  retain  whatever 
moisture  the  atmosphere  affords.  They  are  chiefly  bulbous 
plants,  one  of  which  is  known  as  the  water-root. 

The  Gemsbok  is  far  less  fleet  than  many  of  its  kind,  and 
it  is  frequently  run  down  by  means  of  horses  and  dogs. 
When  in  extremity  the  animal  is  a  dangerous  foe,  for  it 
lowers  its  head  to  the  ground  and  strikes  right  and  left  with 
wonderful  rapidity.  Even  a  lion  has  been  killed  by  the 
Gemsbok,  being  received  on  the  sharp  points  of  the  horns 
and  pierced  through  the  breast.  The  Gemsbok's  neck  was 
broken  by  the  shock,  and  so  both  animals  were  killed. 

The  Oryx  proper  (Antilope  oryx)  differs  but  little  from  the 
foregoing,  except  that  it  is  six  inches  less  in  height,  and  its 
horns,  instead  of  being  straight,  are  bent  back  into  a  fine 
curve.  It  is  resolute  and  dangerous  if  hard  pressed,  and 
when  the  dogs  surround  it,  not  infrequently  several  will  be 
wounded  before  the  hunters  can  come  up.  It  uses  its  horns 
with  amazing  address  and  adroitness,  and  with  such  violence 
as  to  keep  a  whole  pack  at  a  safe  distance. 

Differing  in  only  a  few  trifling  particulars  is  the  smaller 
Beatrix  Antelope  (Oryx  leucoryx),  Plate  XXXIII.  Fig.  2. 


EQUINE  ANTELOPE  (Hippotragus  equinus). 
Coloured   Plate  XXI.  Fig.  2. 

Very  closely  allied  to  the  oryx  are  the  Roan  and  Sable 
Antelopes.  The  Roan,  or  Equine  Antelope  of  Central  South 
Africa,  is  typical  of  practically  any  animal  included  in  the 
genus.  It  is  a  handsome  beast,  standing  nearly  five  feet 
high  at  the  shoulders.  The  colour  of  the  hair  varies  con- 
siderably ;  usually  it  is  more  or  less  roan,  but  sometimes  it 
is  dark  grey  or  brown.  Some  brown  and  white  markings  on 


THE  WATERBUCK  3*9 

the  face  are  very  distinctive.  The  horns,  curving  and  ridged, 
on  the  average  seldom  exceed  three  feet,  but  in  specially 
fine  animals  will  run  to  another  half-dozen  inches. 

The  Sable  Antelope  (Hippotragus  niger)  is  most  abundant 
in  Mashonaland  and  neighbouring  regions,  where  the  herds 
number  from  ten  to  twenty  individuals.  There  appears  to 
be  no  two  opinions  concerning  the  striking  handsomeness 
of  the  animal.  Says  Gordon  Gumming,  '  I  shall  never 
forget  the  sensation  I  experienced  on  beholding  a  sight  so 
thrilling  to  the  sportsman's  eye  ;  he  stood  with  a  small 
troop  of  palas  right  in  our  path,  and  had,  unfortunately, 
detected  us  before  we  saw  him.  Shouting  to  my  pack,  I 
galloped  after  him ;  but  the  day  was  close  and  warm,  and 
the  dogs  had  lost  their  spirit.  My  horse,  being  an  indif- 
ferent one,  soon  lost  ground,  and  the  beautiful  creature, 
gaining  a  rocky  ridge,  was  quickly  beyond  my  reach,  and 
vanished  for  ever  from  my  view.  I  sought  in  vain  to  close 
my  eyelids  that  night,  for  the  image  of  the  Sable  Antelope 
was  still  before  me.' 


WATERBUCK  (Cobus  ellipsiprymnus}. 
Coloured  Plate  XXI.  Fig.  4. 

The  genus  Cobus  includes  various  Antelopes,  which  in 
their  love  of  water  present  a  great  contrast  to  the  great 
majority  of  the  Antelope  family.  Of  these  the  Water  buck 
will  serve  as  an  excellent  example.  Standing  four  feet  high 
or  more  at  the  withers,  the  animal  is  principally  reddish- 
brown  in  colour,  with  an  elliptical  patch  of  white  on  the 
hindquarters,  and  small  patches  of  the  same  colour  adorn 
the  face.  The  hair  is  long  and  coarse.  The  horns  vary 
from  two  to  nearly  three  feet  in  length  along  the  curve ; 
they  are  slightly  lyrate  and  ringed  nearly  from  their  base 
to  their  tips. 

The  Waterbuck  is  found  in  South  and  Eastern  Africa, 
especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Zambesi.  The  animal  varies 
somewhat  in  habit  in  different  regions,  sometimes  frequent- 
ing stony  uplands,  perhaps  a  mile  or  more  from  a  river ;  in 
other  cases,  as  in  Nyassaland,  selecting  swampy  plains, 


33o  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

where  the  tall  grass  and  reeds  afford  plenty  of  cover.  The 
animals  always  make  for  the  water  when  disturbed.  It  is  a 
peculiarity  of  the  Water  Antelopes  that  as  long  as  they  can 
bottom  the  water  they  do  not  attempt  to  swim,  splashing 
along  in  a  series  of  bounds.  Not  infrequently  they  stand 
in  water  up  to  the  tops  of  their  legs,  cropping  the  aquatic 
plants.  The  Sing-Sing  (Cobus  defassa)  is  a  rather  smaller 
animal  exactly  similar  in  habit,  but  with  long,  silky  hair. 

ELAND  ( Taurotragus  oryx) . 
Coloured  Plate  XXII.  Fig.  2. 

The  Eland,  or  Impoofo,  is  the  largest  of  the  Antelopes. 
Standing  nearly  six  feet  high  at  the  shoulders  and  with  a 
length  of  nine  feet,  it  is  more  heavily  built  than  any  other 
of  the  Antelope  family,  equalling  in  bulk  the  domestic  ox. 
The  Central  African  variety  is  pale  fawn  in  colour,  but  that 
of  South  Africa  is  a  bright  yellow  tan,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration ;  in  old  age,  however,  the  colour  may  darken  to 
bluish  grey. 

The  Eland  possesses  a  well-marked  dewlap,  which  is 
fringed  with  black  hair  similar  to  that  of  the  short  mane  ; 
the  tail,  two  and  a  half  feet  in  length,  is  well  tufted  with 
brown  hair.  From  the  head,  light,  graceful,  and  bony, 
project  two  strong,  straight  horns,  usually  a  couple  of 
feet  in  length  ;  they  are  twisted  in  an  open  spiral.  At  one 
time  herds  of  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  animals  were  common, 
but  except  in  the  more  remote  districts  it  is  now  limited  to 
small  parties.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  specimens  remain  in 
Cape  Colony,  Natal,  Orange  River  Colony,  and  the  Trans- 
vaal ;  but  it  is  fairly  common  in  Nyassaland  and  the  Kili- 
manjaro region. 

The  flesh  of  the  Eland  is  very  tender,  even  when  fresh 
killed;  the  skin  is  highly  valued  for  many  purposes,  and  the 
marrow  is  one  of  the  greatest  dainties  for  which  a  hunter 
can  wish.  The  animal  quite  commonly  weighs  twelve 
hundred  pounds,  while  old  bulls  will  approach  two 
thousand  pounds  ;  these  heavy  animals  are  rather  easily 
ridden  down.  At  one  time  this  Antelope  was  introduced 


Plate   XXH. 


THE  GNU  331 

into  Europe  with  a  view  to  breeding  it  for  its  flesh,  but 
the  animal's  ravenous  appetite  made  it  an  unprofitable 
undertaking. 

GNU  (Connocheetes  gnu). 
Coloured  Plate  XXII.  Fig.  i. 

The  two  species  of  Gnu  are  certainly  the  strangest- 
looking  of  the  Antelopes,  and  they  well  deserve  their 
common  name  'Wildebeest/  which  is  gained  for  them 
by  their  wild  manoeuvres  as  much  as  by  their  awkward 
and  uncouth  appearance.  In  colour,  the  species  figured 
on  the  plate  is  mainly  dark  brown,  except  for  the  black 
mane  streaked  with  white  at  its  base  and  a  long  white  tail. 
There  are  tufts  of  hair  on  the  muzzle  and  under  the  chin, 
together  with  a  ruff  of  black  hair  on  the  neck  and  extending 
to  between  the  fore  legs. 

This  extraordinary  animal  is  equal  in  height  to  a  small 
pony,  and  its  general  contour  is  compact  and  very  muscular. 
The  head  is  abnormally  large  and  the  eyes  are  wild  and  fiery. 
The  horns,  large  and  ponderous,  scarcely  advance  from  the 
skull,  taking  an  oblique  direction  outwards,  and  then  rising 
again  towards  the  points,  which  are  long  and  sharp.  The 
horns  overshadow  the  animal's  eyes,  giving  it  a  suspicious 
and  sinister  aspect,  and  hence  another  generic  name 
(Catoblepas),  which  means  '  downlooking.' 

The  ancient  naturalists  thought  the  Wildebeest  to  be  a 
hybrid  between  a  horse  and  a  cow,  and  in  travelling 
menageries  it  is  generally  advertised  as  the  '  Horned 
Horse.'  It  has  the  odd  habit  of  mixing  with  zebras, 
giraffes,  ostriches,  &c.,  in  a  most  miscellaneous  herd.  The 
colour  scarlet  has  for  it  the  most  astonishing  fascination, 
so  that  when  the  hunters  wish  to  attract  it  within  rifle-range, 
all  they  have  to  do  is  to  tie  a  red  cloth  to  a  stick,  allow  it  to 
wave  in  the  air,  and  wait  for  the  Gnu,  which  cannot  resist 
the  temptation  of  inspecting  the  scarlet  object.  Every  now 
and  then,  even  in  captivity,  the  Gnu  is  seized  with  an  ir- 
repressible desire  to  dance,  kick,  and  bark.  Accordingly, 
down  goes  its  head  to  the  ground,  up  go  its  heels  into  the 
air  ;  then  it  pretends  to  toss  some  enemy  to  the  sky  ;  then 


332  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

prances  up  and  down  like  a  rocking-horse  worked  by 
machinery  ;  then  executes  a  series  of  pirouettes,  and  all 
the  time  emits  a  string  of  sharp,  loud  barks  which  can  be 
heard  at  a  great  distance,  and,  in  a  menagerie,  pierce 
through  the  roars  of  lions  and  tigers. 

This  White-tailed  Gnu  is  strictly  a  South  African  animal ; 
but  there  is  another  species,  the  Blue  or  Brindled  Gnu 
(Connochcetes  taurinus),  which  is  more  or  less  common  from 
the  edge  of  the  Kalahari  Desert,  through  the  Eastern  lake 
regions  to  Kilimanjaro.  Thanks  to  the  fact  that  the  Wilde- 
beest is  as  wary  as  it  is  tenacious  of  life,  and  also  that  the 
flesh  is  of  little  value,  the  native  hunters  kill  fewer  of  the 
animal  than  of  any  other  species  of  Antelope.  Before  the 
war  it  was  calculated  there  were  not  more  than  two  thousand 
Gnus  in  South  Africa ;  there  are  now  probably  less  than 
half  that  number. 


NILGAI  (Boselaphus  tragocamelus) . 
Plate  XXXII.  Fig.  2. 

The  Nilgai,  or  Blue  Ox  of  India,  standing  five  feet  high 
at  the  shoulders,  is  the  largest  of  the  Asiatic  Antelopes.  The 
females  are  usually  tawny  red  in  colour,  while  the  males  are 
generally  slate  blue,  the  under  parts  being  darker  and  the 
legs  nearly  black.  Very  old  bulls  are  nearly  quite  black. 
White  lines,  one  above  and  one  below  the  fetlock,  are 
conspicuous  marks  on  the  elegantly  shaped  limbs.  The 
hind  legs  are  rather  shorter  than  the  fore  limbs,  which 
gives  the  animal  a  somewhat  ungainly  appearance,  but  its 
gait,  though  apparently  clumsy,  is  very  rapid.  The  horns 
of  the  male  are  short,  smooth,  and  straight ;  the  female  is 
hornless. 

The  Blue  Ox,  in  herds  of  fifteen  to  twenty,  frequents  the 
thickly  wooded  plains  or  low  hills  of  Central  India.  It 
grazes  and  browses,  and,  like  the  giraffe,  seizes  leaves  and 
other  food  with  its  tongue,  instead  of  its  lips.  The  animal 
is  shy  and  wary,  and  to  effect  its  capture  considerable  wood- 
craft is  necessary.  In  the  open  it  can  be  hunted  on  horse- 
back and  speared.  It  is  difficult  to  kill  the  Nilgai,  and 


PLATE  XXXII. 


* 


i.     YOUNG    PRONGHORN 

(See  Page  333) 


. 
2.     NILGAI    ANTELOPE. 

(Photos  If.  S.  Bern'ilge,  F.Z.S.) 


THE  PRONGBUCK  333 

frequently  it  will  get  away,  even  though  shot  in  several 
places.  It  is  dangerous  at  close  quarters,  dropping  upon 
its  knees  until  it  is  able  to  make  a  sudden  leap  at  its  enemy. 
The  animal  is  not  much  hunted  by  the  natives,  as  the 
Hindoos  class  it  as  a  member  of  the  Ox  tribe,  the  flesh  of 
which  is  not  partaken.  The  skin  is  useful,  but  the  horns 
are  a  very  insignificant  trophy  of  the  chase. 

PRONG-HORNED  ANTELOPE  (Antilocapra  americana). 
Plate  XXXII.  Fig.  i. 

The  Prong-Horned  Antelope,  or  Prongbuck,  is  one  of 
the  very  few  species  found  in  the  New  World.  The  horns 
of  the  animal,  as  indicated  in  its  name,  are  branched,  and 
they  are  shed  every  year.  In  these  two  respects  it  differs 
from  all  other  of  the  Hollow-horned  Ruminants. 

The  animal,  which  in  America  is  often  called  the  Antelope, 
pure  and  simple,  is  about  three  feet  in  height  at  the 
shoulder.  Lightly  and  gracefully  built,  and  carrying  its 
head  high,  its  coat  is  chestnut  in  colour,  with  the  hind- 
quarters and  under  parts  white.  The  face  is  dark-brownish 
with  white  on  the  top  of  the  head,  the  ears,  cheeks,  and  chin. 
Across  the  throat  are  three  bars  of  russet  yellow. 

The  chief  point  of  interest  in  the  Pronghorn  concerns 
its  horns,  which  in  structure  are  very  similar  to  those  of 
the  sheep  and  goats.  About  a  foot  in  length,  they  are 
flattened  from  side  to  side,  bending  backwards  at  their 
tips.  From  about  the  middle  of  their  length  is  thrown 
out  a  short  branch,  which  is  directed  outwards.  Hunters 
frequently  asserted  that  the  animal  shed  its  horns  ;  but  it 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  accepted  as  a  fact,  until  an 
animal  in  confinement  in  the  London  Zoological  Gardens 
afforded  actual  and  visible  proof  of  the  peculiarity. 

Notwithstanding  its  fine  turn  of  speed,  the  Prongbuck 
is  a  poor  jumper — the  result  of  its  prairie  life,  where 
obstacles  are  few  and  far  between.  In  districts  where  the 
animal  has  not  been  much  disturbed  it  is  by  no  means 
a  hard  matter  to  get  within  gun-shot  of  it ;  but  it  speedily 
becomes  shy  and  timid,  and  taxes  the  skill  of  the  hunter 


334  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

to  the  utmost.  A  well-known  naturalist  and  sportsman 
says : '  The  ostrich,  with  his  vaunted  power  of  vision,  is  com- 
paratively near-sighted  when  compared  to  the  Pronghorn. 
The  giraffe  may  excel  him,  not  from  having  superior  eyes, 
but  from  their  greater  elevation,  and  therefore  greater  scope. 
The  deer  is  simply  nowhere  in  this  respect.  I  never  had 
any  difficulty  in  getting  within  two  hundred  yards  of  an 
ostrich  in  any  decent  place  ;  yet  I  at  first  found  it  difficult 
to  get  within  six  hundred  yards  of  a  Pronghorn,  and  then 
it  was  invariably  a  wideawake  one,  fully  able  to  take  care 
of  himself.' 

The  flesh  of  the  Pronghorn  is  excellent,  although  it  bears 
a  peculiar  odour  which  some  people  consider  unpleasant. 
Like  many  other  North  American  animals,  this  Antelope  is 
rapidly  approaching  the  point  of  extinction,  and  it  is  now 
only  found  in  the  more  remote  Western  regions. 

MISCELLANEOUS  ANTELOPES. 

Of  the  remaining  Antelopes  can  be  briefly  mentioned,  in 
almost  haphazard  order,  only  a  few  that  possess  some  more 
or  less  specially  marked  characteristic.  The  Saiga  Antelope 
(Saiga  tatarica)  is  the  only  desert  Antelope  which  is  found 
in  Europe,  chiefly  on  the  steppes  of  Russia,  from  which  the 
animal  extends  into  Asia.  It  is  about  equal  in  size  to  the 
common  goat.  The  nostrils  of  the  animal  are  curiously 
inflated,  giving  the  head  a  generally  swollen  appearance, 
more  than  matching  its  rather  ungainly  build. 

The  Klipspringer  (Oreotragus  saltator),  Plate  XXXIII. 
Fig.  i,  prefers  rocky  ground,  as  signified  in  its  name, 
which  means  'rock  jumper.'  The  animal  ranges  from  Cape 
Colony  through  most  of  East  Africa  to  Abyssinia,  in  which 
regions  it  traverses  even  precipices  with  wonderful  activity 
and  sureness  of  foot.  It  is  an  olive-coloured  little  animal, 
not  exceeding  two  feet  in  height,  with  horns  only  four  or 
five  inches  long,  which  bend  forward  at  their  tips.  The 
skin  of  the  legs,  with  the  little  hoof  attached,  is  frequently 
used  by  the  Kaffir  belles  as  an  anklet  or  bracelet. 

The  Kudu  (Strepsiceros  kudu)  roams  very  much  the  same 
regions  as  the  last-named.  It  somewhat  resembles  a 


VARIOUS  ANTELOPES 


335 


HORNS  OF  THE  KUDU. 


small  Eland,  though  the  horns  are  often  much  longer  than 

in   the  larger   animal,  some 

specimens    measuring    over 

five    feet    along    the    curve. 

Captain  Harris  considered  it 

to  be  the  most  majestic  in  its 

carriage  of  all  the  Antelopes. 

Inhabiting  brushwood  tracts, 

the    immense    horns   would 

appear  likely  to  prove  a  great 

hindrance  to  rapid  progress ; 

but  the  animal  lays  its  horns 

upon    its   back    and    dashes 

through  the  mazes  of  scrub 

growth     without     difficulty. 

Kudu  skin  is  highly  prized. 

No  other  thin,  tough  leather 

will  make  so  good  a  whiplash  for  the  long  whips  that  are 

used  in  oxen  team  driving,  &c. 

The  Hartebeest  (Bubalis  caama)  is  typical  of  a  genus 
which  includes  animals  ranging  widely  separated  regions, 
all  of  which,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  are  confined  to 
Africa,  the  happy  hunting-ground  of  the  Antelope  family. 
The  animal  gains  its  name  from  its  more  than  remote 
resemblance  to  a  stag  ;  but  it  is  also  often  called  the  Cervine 
Antelope.  It  can  at  once  be  recognised  by  the  peculiar 
form  of  its  horns,  which  are  first  curved  slightly  forwards 
and  then  bent  suddenly  backwards.  Like  the  Blue  Ox  of 
India,  the  Hartebeest  drops  upon  its  knees  to  make  use  of 
its  horns. 

The  common  Hartebeest  is  a  South  African  species  that  is 
limited  to  the  regions  south  of  Mashonaland.  This  animal 
is  desperately  tenacious  of  life.  Even  with  a  broken  limb 
or  a  bullet  through  its  body  and  penetrating  a  lung,  it  will 
still  forge  along  in  front  of  its  pursuer,  and  not  infrequently 
make  its  escape.  As  the  habitat  of  the  Hartebeest  is  only  the 
remote  desert  regions,  it  is  not  very  likely  to  die  out.  This 
applies  equally  to  several  other  species,  which  are  hunted 
only  with  the  greatest  difficulty,  for  if  the  Antelopes  con- 
cerned can  exist  without  drinking,  the  horses  necessary  to 


336  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

engage  in  the  chase  of  them  must  be  supplied  with  water, 
or  else  they  will  die. 

The  Blesbok  (Bubalis  albifrons)  is  a  smaller  animal,  a 
brilliantly  coated  Antelope  with  hair  chiefly  of  a  purple-red 
colour,  which  serves  to  throw  up  into  greater  prominence 
the  white  '  blaze  '  down  the  face.  In  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Vet  River,  Gordon  Gumming  says  that  he  saw  '  a  purple 
mass  of  graceful  Blesboks  which  extended  without  a  break 
as  far  as  the  eye  could  strain.'  It  is  said  that  the  skin  of 
this  Antelope  gives  off  a  delicious  odour  of  flowers  and 
sweet  herbs. 

The  Four-Horned  Antelope  (Tetraceros  quadricornis)  is  a 
small  Indian  species,  almost  Hare-like  in  its  habits.  The 
male  is  distinguished  by  the  possession  of  a  double  pair  of 
horns.  The  larger  pair,  only  about  four  inches  in  length, 
are  placed  well  back  on  the  skull ;  the  second  pair,  rising 
immediately  over  the  eyes,  are  only  half  as  long ;  in  some 
cases  they  are  absent  altogether  or  are  reduced  to  mere 
excrescences. 

The  Addax  (Addax  nasomaculatus) ,  Plate  XXXIV.  Fig.  2, 
which  inhabits  the  barren  sandy  deserts  of  North  Africa 
and  Arabia,  is  a  heavily  and  long  horned  animal.  It  is 
largely  hunted  by  the  Bedouins,  who  use  horses  and  grey- 
hounds in  the  chase. 

No  account  of  the  Antelope  family  would  be  complete 
without  reference  to  various  pretty,  graceful  little  animals, 
which  have  quite  whippet-like  bodies,  supported  on  rela- 
tively long  and  slender  legs.  The  Pigmy,  or  Royal, 
Antelope  (Neotragus  pygmceus)  of  West  Africa  is  less  than 
a  foot  in  height.  Only  the  males  have  horns,  which  are 
nearly  straight,  and  either  vertical  or  inclining  backwards. 

The  Dik-Dik  Antelopes  are  almost  as  small  as  the  fore- 
going, but  they  possess  at  least  two  distinctive  features. 
Their  noses  are  elongated  and  hairy,  and  there  is  usually 
a  tuft  of  hair  on  the  crown  of  the  head.  There  are  half  a 
dozen  different  species  in  the  north-east  of  Africa,  of  which 
Phillips's  Dik-Dik  (Madoqua  phillipsi),  Plate  XXXIV.  Fig.  i, 
serves  as  an  excellent  example.  The  photograph  is  one-sixth 
of  the  natural  size  of  this  tiny  Antelope,  which  is  most 
popular  with  visitors  to  the  Zoological  Gardens. 


PLATE  XXXIII. 


i.     KLIPSPRIXGER. 
(See  fage  334) 


2.     BEATRIX  ANTELOPE. 

(See  page  328) 


(Photo  Autotyfe  Company.) 


(Photo  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


PLATE  XXXIV. 


i.     DIK-DIK   ANTELOPE.  2.     ADDAX  ANTELOPE. 

(See  page  336) 


(Photo  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


THE  TALLEST   MAMMAL  337 

FAMILY   CAMELOPARDALID^E   (GIRAFFES). 

GIRAFFE  (Giraffa  camelopardalis). 

Coloured  Plate  XXIII. 

The  Giraffes  are  a  most  singular  group  of  African 
ruminants,  which  appear  to  occupy  a  place  between  the 
Hollow-horned  Ruminants  and  the  Deer.  A  noted  Swiss 
naturalist,  in  fact,  described  the  animals  as  '  a  most  fantastic 
form  of  Deer.'  The  family  name  arises  from  their  form  and 
coloured  spots  suggesting  some  resemblance  to  the  camel 
and  leopard  respectively.  One  writer  says  that  '  a  careful 
study  of  its  features  will  discover  in  the  Giraffe  a  likeness  to 
the  camel,  the  ox,  the  deer,  the  antelope,  the  goat,  and  the 
ostrich.'  The  name  Giraffe  is  a  corruption  of  the  Arabic 
Zaraffa  (or  Seraph),  the  literal  meaning  of  which  is  'graceful.' 

There  are  at  least  two  species  of  the  Giraffes.  The 
Southern  or  Cape  species  ranges  from  Bechuanaland  to 
British  East  Africa  and  the  Soudan  ;  the  Nubian  or 
Northern  species  is  found  in  the  Somaliland  region  and 
between  Abyssinia  and  the  Nile.  There  are  quite  ten 
varieties. 

The  Giraffe  is  the  tallest  of  all  known  mammals,  the  males 
attaining  a  height  of  as  much  as  nineteen  or  twenty  feet, 
while  the  females  range  from  thirteen  to  sixteen  feet.  The 
short,  deep  body  is  raised  on  slender,  elongated  limbs,  the 
greater  elevation  of  the  withers  giving  the  fore  legs  the 
appearance  of  much  greater  length  than  the  hind  ones,  a 
difference  that  is  decidedly  more  apparent  than  real.  On 
the  chest  and  knees  are  pads  of  thick,  hard  skin  to  protect 
the  animal  from  abrasions  when  resting  upon  rough  ground. 

The  head,  splendidly  poised  at  the  extremity  of  the 
long,  tapering  neck,  is  elegantly  moulded  and  ends  in  a 
singularly  narrow  muzzle  with  a  well-formed  mouth.  The 
upper  lip  is  long  and  prehensile.  The  eyes,  soft  and  gentle 
in  expression,  are  large  and  prominent,  affording  a  specially 
wide  outlook  on  every  side.  The  ears  are  large  and  pointed, 
and  the  large  nostril  slits  can  be  closed  at  will. 

The  head  of  the  Giraffe,  in  both  sexes,  is  furnished  with 

23 


338  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

so-called  horns,  which  in  the  young  animals  are  not  con- 


nected with  the  bones  of  the  skull,  gradually  becoming  fixed 
as  the  animal  increases  in  age.     The  Giraffe  of  South  Africa 


Plate  XXIII. 


Giraffe 


THE  GIRAFFE  339 

has  two  horns,  but  in  the  northern  species  there  is  usually 
a  third  horn  in  the  centre  of  the  forehead.  These  bony 
processes  are  unlike  the  horns  of  any  other  animal,  being 
mere  knobs  or  protuberances  that  might  well  be  the  bases 
from  which  true  horns  might  be  expected  to  spring.  Neither 
velvet  nor  hollow  horns  ever  appear  upon  them,  but  a  tuft 
of  black  hair  adorns  their  tips. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  length  of  the  neck,  it  consists 
of  but  seven  vertebrae,  in  which  it  agrees  with  what  is 
practically  a  law  among  mammals.  It  naturally  follows 
that  each  vertebra  is  very  long,  which  makes  the  neck 
not  nearly  so  flexible  as  its  tapering  shape  would  suggest. 
Its  length  allows  the  animal  to  browse  on  the  leaves  of 
trees,  especially  the  acacia,  which  it  prefers  before  all 
others.  To  match  the  mobile  upper  lip  the  tongue  is  ex- 
ceedingly long,  slender,  and  flexible,  so  that  the  animal 
can  twist  it  round  the  leaves,  and  thus  draw  them  into 
its  mouth. 

This  structure  of  the  tongue  can  be  seen  to  advantage  by 
placing  a  lump  of  sugar  on  the  ground  before  a  Giraffe. 
The  creature  cannot  bend  its  neck,  but  can  only  stoop 
it  from  the  shoulders  in  a  straight  line.  By  dint  of  much 
straddling  with  the  legs  it  gets  its  nose  near  the  ground,  and 
then,  by  protruding  the  tongue  and  coiling  its  tip  round 
the  sugar,  it  succeeds  in  gaining  the  coveted  dainty.  In 
the  arid  regions  which  it  inhabits  the  Giraffe  will  find  no 
opportunity  of  touching  water  for  several  months  at  a  time, 
and  hence  the  opinion  of  Bushmen  and  earlier  travellers 
that  the  animal  never  drinks  at  all.  Upon  this  point  Mr. 
Selous  may  be  quoted.  He  states  that  upon  one  occasion, 
a  little  before  sundown,  he  was  'just  in  time  to  see  three 
tall,  graceful  Giraffes  issue  from  the  forest  a  little  distance 
beyond  on  their  way  down  to  the  water.  It  is  a  curious 
sight  to  watch  these  long-legged  animals  drinking.  Though 
their  necks  are  long,  they  are  not  sufficiently  so  to  enable 
them  to  reach  the  water  without  straddling  their  legs  wide 
apart,  this  position  having  to  be  assumed,  not  only  when 
drinking,  but  likewise  when  the  animal  desires  to  pick  up 
a  leaf  from  the  ground,  or  on  the  rare  occasions  when  it 
grazes'  (Plate  XXXV.  Fig.  i). 


340  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

The  hair  of  the  Giraffe  is  short  and  close,  the  ground 
colour  in  the  South  African  species  being  a  creamy  fawn, 
marked  freely  with  irregular  patches  varying  from  lemon- 
fawn  to  brownish  black.  The  Nubian  Giraffe  is  chiefly  a 
light  reddish  chestnut,  covered  with  a  ,fine  network  of 
tawny  lines  almost  geometrical  in  design.  From  the  nape 
of  the  neck  to  the  withers  is  a  short  and  erect  mane ;  the 
tail  is  furnished  with  a  long  black  tuft  at  its  tip. 

'  The  Giraffe  during  flight,'  says  Andersonn,  '  does  not 
move  the  limbs  of  either  side  alternately,  but  swings  for- 
ward the  two  legs  of  the  same  side  at  the  same  instant,  so 
that  it  is  one  of  the  most  curious  sights  imaginable  to  see 
a  troop  of  these  animals  at  full  speed,  balancing  themselves 
to  and  fro,  while  their  long  and  tapering  necks,  swaying 
backwards  and  forwards,  follow  the  motion  of  their 
bodies.' 

The  sweeping,  rocking  stride  of  the  Giraffe  seems  to  take 
it  over  the  ground  with  very  little  exertion  ;  it  appears  to 
sail  or  glide  along  almost  without  any  movement  of  the 
legs  at  all.  For  the  first  two  miles  horses  are  quite  unable 
to  cope  with  it,  and  if  the  Giraffe  can  reach  mountainous  or 
rocky  country  they  are  still  further  out  of  the  question. 
Though  the  hoofs  are  like  those  of  gigantic  cattle,  they  are 
quite  goat-like  in  the  ease  and  certainty  with  which  ravines 
are  cleared.  Like  the  horse,  the  Giraffe  can  use  its  hind- 
feet  very  effectively,  and  it  is  said  can  kill  a  lion  with  a 
single  kick.  Hunters  give  a  dying  animal  a  wide  berth,  for 
there  is  '  little  to  choose  between  a  kick  from  it  and  a  blow 
from  the  arm  of  a  windmill.' 

Like  many  other  animals  that  minister  to  man's  neces- 
sities, and  his  still  more  numerous  desires,  the  Giraffe  is 
often  stated  to  be  within  sight  of  extermination.  The 
increasing  settlement  of  South  Africa  has  driven  the  last 
remnants  of  the  once  numerous  herds  into  the  more  remote 
regions  of  the  Kalahari  desert.  It  is  doubtful  if  in  any  part 
of  the  continent  will  ever  again  be  seen  a  herd  of  a  hundred 
and  fifty  Giraffes,  such  as  Sir  Samuel  Baker  reports  that  he 
encountered  ;  but  nevertheless  the  animal  is  yet  more  than 
fairly  common  in  the  remote  wilds  to  which  it  has 
retreated. 


THE  OKAPI  341 

The  flesh  of  the  Giraffe  is  excellent,  and  that  of  the  young 
is  an  especial  delicacy ;  but  it  is  for  its  hide,  an  inch  in 
thickness,  and  fetching  from  ^3  to  ^5,  that  it  has  been 
hunted  so  mercilessly.  He,  however,  who  would  now  seek 
for  it  must  leave  the  haunts  of  man  and  penetrate  pathless 
wilds,  wide  and  arid  wastes,  where  the  lion  prowls  and 
the  hyaena  and  the  wild  dog  hunt  their  prey.  Here  man 
is  the  enemy  least  to  be  feared ;  but  the  Giraffe  often 
falls  before  the  lion,  though  not  without  resistance.  Ren- 
dered desperate  by  necessity,  it  uses  its  hoofs  as  weapons, 
and  oftener  still  will  it  bear  away  its  ferocious  antagonist 
clinging  on,  with  teeth  and  talons,  before  sinking  prostrate 
in  death.  Even  when  happy  and  active  the  Giraffe  is 
strangely  mute,  and  not  even  in  its  death-agonies  does  it 
give  vent  to  the  slightest  sound. 

OKAPI  (Okapi  johnstoni). 
Plate  XXXIX.  Fig.  i. 

Little  is  known  of  the  Okapi,  which  white  man  had  never 
seen,  alive  or  dead,  until  the  twentieth  century.  When 
H.  M.  Stanley  journeyed  through  the  great  fermenting  vat 
of  Central  Africa  in  his  task  to  relieve  Emin  Pasha,  his 
most  interesting  discovery  was  the  existence  of  a  hitherto 
unknown  pigmy  people  in  the  great  Semliki  forest  between 
Uganda  and  the  Congo  Free  State. 

The  great  explorer  maintained  that  the  Semliki  region 
contained  animals  that  were  yet  strangers  to  the  naturalist, 
and  in  addition  to  some  new  animals  that  he  had  seen,  the 
dwarfs  had  told  him  of  an  animal  like  an  ass  which  they 
captured  in  pits.  Unfortunately  the  performance  of  Stanley's 
main  purpose,  and  the  straits  to  which  he  and  his  com- 
panions were  reduced,  allowed  little  or  no  time  for  natural 
history  investigations ;  and  it  fell  to  the  lot  of  Sir  Harry 
Johnston  to  put  the  explorer's  statement  to  the  proof  some 
eleven  years  later,  when  he  undertook  to  escort  home  a 
party  of  pigmies  whom  the  authorities  had  prevented  being 
taken  to  Europe  for  exhibition  purposes. 

When  Sir  Harry  Johnston   questioned  the  dwarfs  con- 


342  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

earning  the  animal,  they  gave  him  to  understand  that  the 
creature  was  like  a  mule  with  a  zebra's  skin.  Arriving  at  a 
European  station,  the  Belgian  officers  admitted  that  they 
had  seen  some  such  animal,  but  only  when  dead,  after  it 
had  been  brought  in  by  natives ;  more  than  that,  some  of 
the  native  troops  were  wearing  strips  of  the  animal's  skin  as 
bandoliers.  Some  of  these  pieces  of  skin  were  presented 
to  Sir  Harry  Johnston,  who  promptly  assumed  that  the 
animal  must  be  some  species  of  horse,  which  was  also  the 
opinion  of  leading  naturalists  at  home  to  whom  the  speci- 
mens of  skin  were  sent.  A  little  later  Sir  Harry  revised  his 
opinion,  for  though  he  could  not  get  a  glimpse  of  an  animal 
the  natives  were  able  to  show  him  its  tracks,  and  the  marks 
were  not  unlike  those  of  the  eland. 

Eventually  were  procured  a  couple  of  skulls  and  a  com- 
plete skin,  which  was  set  up  and  exhibited  in  the  Natural 
History  Museum,  South  Kensington,  and  it  remains  one  of 
the  very  few  specimens  yet  in  existence  in  any  collection. 
The  stuffed  skin  shows  an  extraordinary  beast,  suggesting 
a  link  between  the  giraffe  and  the  antelope.  Though 
evidently  an  immature  animal,  it  stands  five  feet  high  at 
the  shoulder,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  full-grown 
Okapi  is  six,  or  even  seven,  feet  in  height.  The  body  is  a 
rich,  glossy  purplish  brown  in  colour,  the  legs,  hind- 
quarters, and  sides  of  the  head  being  white,  while  there  are 
black  bands  on  the  thighs,  with  a  perpendicular  black  band 
running  down  the  front  of  the  leg  to  join  another  broad 
band  of  black  above  the  hoof,  which  has  two  toes  like  those 
of  the  giraffe.  The  legs  are  clean  and  slender  and  the 
hoofs  neat,  with  every  indication  that  the  creature  is  of 
great  speed.  The  adult  male  has  two  short  curved  bare 
horns  just  above  the  eyes,  which  again  appear  to  mark 
the  Okapi  as  a  cousin  to  the  giraffe. 

SOLID-HORNED  RUMINANTS. 
FAMILY   CERVID^E    (DEER). 

The  family  Cervidae  consists  of  at  least  a  score  of  species 
and  a  far  greater  number  of  varieties,  including  a  multitude 
of  antelope-like  creatures,  many  of  them  of  graceful  form, 


PLATE  XXXV. 


i      GIRAFFE. 

(See  page  339) 


2.     SWAMP    DEER. 
(See  page  363) 


(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


PLATE  XXXVI. 


ANTLERS  OF  THE  RED  DEER:  i.  IN  VELVET.  2.  ROYAL  HART. 


THE  DEER  FAMILY  343 

elastic  step,  and  animated  expression.  Unlike  the  antelopes, 
the  Deer  are  never  found  in  desert  regions  :  they  are  chiefly 
inhabitants  of  grass  jungles  and  forests.  They  are  very 
widely  distributed,  being  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America  ;  in  Africa  they  are  restricted  to  the  North,  and  in 
America  the  species  are  fewer  than  in  the  Old  World. 

Some  of  the  Deer  are  among  the  noblest  animals  on 
earth  ;  their  limbs  are  slender,  strong,  and  sinewy,  usually 
fitted  with  well-developed  lateral  hoofs ;  their  necks  are 
tapering  and  swanlike  ;  their  heads  are  held  high,  and 
the  males  are  almost  invariably  garnished  with  antlers. 
There  is  considerable  variety  of  colouring  in  the  coats  of 
Deer,  different  shades  of  brown  predominating.  With  the 
exception  of  a  very  few  species,  the  Elk,  Reindeer,  and 
Sambar  among  them,  nearly  all  young  Deer  have  their 
coats  spotted  with  white,  or  else  horizontal  stripes  of  the 
same  colour.  In  a  few  cases  these  markings  remain  as  a 
permanent  adornment,  and  in  others  the  variation  reappears 
only  at  more  or  less  regular  periods. 

In  very  many  particulars  the  Deer  follow  pretty  closely 
the  Hollow-horned  Ruminants,  but  on  account  of  their 
antlers  the  males  of  the  former,  at  least,  are  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  other  Ruminants,  the  single  exception 
being  provided  by  the  female  Reindeer,  which  is  antlered 
like  the  male  animal. 

Antlers  differ  widely  from  horns  in  their  composition, 
consisting  of  genuine  bone,  solid  throughout,  generally 
more  or  less  branched,  and  cast  every  year. 

The  production,  loss,  and  renewal  of  the  antlers  of  the 
Deer  are  among  the  most  remarkable  wonders  of  animal 
physiology.  Upon  the  young  animal's  skull,  covered  by 
nearly  smooth  dark  skin,  are  two  slight  protuberances,  the 
foundations  whence  future  antlers  are  to  arise.  In  spring 
the  skin  around  the  knobs  upon  the  forehead  becomes  hot 
and  swollen,  owing  to  a  large  quantity  of  blood  being 
directed  to  the  spot.  The  arteries  and  veins  of  the  skin 
become  greatly  enlarged  and  deposit  bony  matter  on  the 
skull  with  great  rapidity.  The  young  antler,  still  enveloped 
in  skin,  which  is  called  the  '  velvet/  grows  quickly,  the 
arteries  and  veins  following  its  course  (Plate  XXXVI.). 


344  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

When  the  antler  has  attained  its  full  year's  growth,  it 
would  be  useless  if  surrounded  by  the  sensitive  velvet,  which 
would  bleed  harmfully  if  wounded.  At  the  base  of  each 
antler  there  is  a  circular  ridge  or  burr.  As  the  burr  is 
formed  it  narrows  the  grooves  in  which  the  arteries  lie  and 
gradually  cuts  off  the  supply  of  blood.  The  skin,  thus 
deprived  of  the  life-giving  fluid,  shrivels  and  dries  up,  when 
the  Deer  gets  rid  of  it  by  rubbing  the  antlers  against  tree- 
trunks.  While  in  velvet  the  animal  is  very  inoffensive, 
taking  the  greatest  care  of  its  headgear. 

So  much  for  the  growth  of  the  antlers,  but  now  for  the 
reason  of  their  annual  renewal.  The  Deer  live  in  small 
families,  each  family  consisting  of  several  females  and  one 
male.  In  order  to  ensure  that  the  offspring  shall  be  strong 
and  healthy,  the  males  always  have  to  fight  for  their  wives, 
the  latter  cheerfully  becoming  the  property  of  the  victor. 
Often  in  combat  an  antler  is  broken,  and  if  there  were  no 
means  of  repairing  the  loss,  the  animal  would  be  per- 
manently disabled  and  unable  to  fight,  just  when  he  was 
at  his  best.  The  rapidity  with  which  so  large  an  amount  of 
bony  matter  is  deposited  is  really  wonderful.  The  antlers 
of  the  Wapiti,  for  example,  weigh  as  much  as  sixty  pounds. 
They  begin  to  grow  in  February,  and  are  complete  in  Sep- 
tember. How  the  head  and  neck  become  accustomed  to 
the  great  weight  is  rather  mysterious.  Especially  is  this 
the  case  with  the  Moose,  whose  broad  antlers  are  of 
enormous  proportional  weight ;  and  in  the  great  Irish  Elk 
now  extinct,  they  weighed  more  than  the  whole  skeleton. 

Deer  feed  chiefly  on  the  leaves  of  young  trees  and  shrubs, 
grasses,  weeds,  and  fungi  of  various  kinds.  In  autumn  fallen 
fruits,  nuts,  acorns,  &c.,  afford  the  animals  almost  unlimited 
provender.  Deer  flesh,  or  venison,  both  of  wild  and 
domesticated  animals,  is  wholesome  and  nutritious.  Deer 
skin  can  be  dressed  as  soft  as  that  of  the  chamois ;  and  the 
excellence  of  doe-skin  gloves  is  too  well  known  to  need 
special  description. 

Considering  their  usefulness,  it  is  remarkable  that  civilised 
man  has  not  domesticated  the  Deer  tribe  more  largely.  It 
has  been  left  to  the  Laplander  to  show  by  means  of  the 
Reindeer  how  largely  Deer  of  many  kinds  might  minister 


THE  RED   DEER  345 

to  man's  appetite  and  comfort.  From  the  very  earliest 
times  Deer  were  viewed  chiefly  through  the  eyes  of  the 
sportsman,  and  stringent  game  laws  prevented  the  commoner 
people  taking  any  practical  interest  in  them. 

In  Britain  there  are  comparatively  few  Deer  ;  the  Red 
and  the  Roe  Deer  are  found  wild  in  Scotland  and  a  few 
other  districts ;  and  semi-domesticated  Fallow  Deer  adorn 
many  parks  up  and  down  the  country.  Upon  various  estates 
are  small  herds  of  imported  foreign  species  that  easily 
become  acclimatised,  and  thrive  so  well  as  to  make  it  a 
matter  of  regret  that  so  little  has  been  done  in  this  direction. 
In  the  royal  forests,  and  on  the  estates  of  the  princes  and 
rich  feudal  lords  of  Germany,  Austria,  and  Russia  are 
great  herds  of  Red,  Fallow,  and  other  species.  In  some  of 
the  great  hunting-parties  organised  by  the  Kaiser  it  is  no 
uncommon  thing  for  two  hundred  head  of  Deer  to  mark 
the  result  of  a  single  day's  sport. 

Deer  may  be  classified  according  to  their  tail,  feet,  or 
antlers.  The  best  known  species  easily  fall  into  the 
following  : — 

Short-tailed  Deer.— Red  Deer,  Wapiti,  Elk,  Reindeer, 
Sambar,  Swamp  Deer,  Schomburgk's  Deer,  Roe  Deer, 
Virginian  Deer,  and  Chinese  Elaphure. 

Long-tailed  Deer. — Fallow  Deer,  Manchurian  and  Japanese 
Deer,  Hog  Deer,  and  Axis  Deer. 

Of  the  many  species  of  Deer  can  be  selected  but  a  few  of 
the  most  typical  representatives,  but  the  particulars  con- 
cerning them  will  include  the  chief  interesting  facts  con- 
nected with  the  life-history  of  most  of  this  large  assemblage 
of  species.  For  convenience'  sake  we  take  them  more  or 
less  in  regional  groups,  rather  than  follow  in  strictly 
scientific  order. 

RED  DEER  (Cervus  elaphus). 
Coloured  Plate  XXIV.  Fig.  i. 

Before  cultivation  had  extended  so  thoroughly  over  Great 
Britain  the  Red  Deer  abounded  in  great  numbers.  It  was 
protected  by  the  severest  laws  ;  deer-stealers  were  accounted 


346  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

criminals  of  the  deepest  dye  ;  but  men  in  defiance  of  laws 
and  edicts  '  bent  their  bows  and  lived  upon  the  chase/  and 
such  as  Robin  Hood  and  William  of  Cloudesley  were 
accounted  as  national  heroes,  whose  names  have  been 
handed  down  to  posterity  in  many  a  stirring  ballad. 

The  Red  Deer  belongs  to  the  Elaphine  group,  which 
contains  the  grandest  and  most  typical  species  of  the  whole 
family.  It  still  exists  in  a  wild  state  in  Exmoor  Forest ; 
in  Scotland  north  of  the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  and  in 
various  of  the  western  islands ;  and  in  Kerry  and  Conne- 
mara  in  Ireland.  It  abounds  in  South  Germany,  Austria, 
Poland,  and  the  Danubian  States.  It  is  not  only  scarcer  in 
Scandinavia,  but  is  a  smaller  animal.  It  is  also  found  in 
the  Caucasus,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  temperate  regions  of 
Siberia,  where  it  attains  a  greater  size  than  in  Europe. 
The  Barbary  Deer  is  but  the  African  variety  of  the  Red 
species.  Thanks  to  the  Prince  Consort,  the  Red  Deer  was 
introduced  into  New  Zealand  for  purposes  of  sport  with 
excellent  results,  for  it  there  exceeds  in  size  any  of  the 
Deer  of  the  British  Islands. 

A  well-grown  stag  stands  quite  four  feet  high  at  the 
withers,  the  hind  being  four  or  five  inches  less.  Its  body- 
colour  is  a  rich  red-brown,  the  neck  more  thickly  coated 
and  inclining  to  a  greyish  tint ;  and  there  is  a  yellowish- 
white  patch  on  the  buttocks.  In  winter  the  covering  is 
longer  and  greyer.  A  stag  in  its  short  shiny  coat,  and 
carrying  a  pair  of  well-curved  symmetrical  antlers,  is  in 
summer  the  lordliest  of  our  native  animals. 

A  description  of  the  various  stages  in  the  growth  of  the 
antlers  of  the  Red  Deer  will  apply  more  or  less  to  all  the 
Cervine  family.  The  fawn  or  calf  is  usually  born  early  in 
June,  and  the  young  male  animal  or  '  Knobber,'  as  it  is  called, 
puts  forth  its  first  simple  antlers  in  the  following  spring. 
They  are  straight,  conical,  and  unbranched,  and  the  young 
Deer's  name  is  changed  to  that  of  '  Brocket.'  About  the 
end  of  February  in  the  following  year  the  Brocket  sheds  its 
antlers.  The  new  antler  rapidly  makes  its  appearance,  and 
is  found  to  have  received  an  addition  in  the  shape  of  a 
brow  tine,  while  the  beam  itself  remains  as  last  year,  except 
that  it  is  larger  and  stronger.  The  two-year-old  hart  is 


Plate  XXIV. 


3.  Roe  Deer 


THE  RED  DEER  347 

now  known  as  a  '  Spayad/  The  next  year  the  beam  throws 
out  an  extra  front  branch  called  the  '  tres '  tine  ;  and  in  the 
fourth  year  the  'bez'  tine  appears  just  above  the  brow  tine, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  top  of  the  main  beam  bifurcates 
into  the  '  sur-royals.'  The  four-year-old  male  is  called  a 
'Staggard.'  In  succeeding  years  the  whole  antler  of  the 
'Stag'  is  not  only  larger,  but  the  sur-royals  increase, 
breaking  out  in  a  series  of  snags  forming  something  like  a 
cup,  until  is  reached  the  full  adult,  a  '  Royal  Hart/  with 
antlers  three  feet  long,  weighing  as  much  as  seventy  pounds, 
and  possessing  from  a  dozen  to  forty 'points  (Plate  XXXVI.) 

In  Scotland  a  stag  with  the  latter  number  would  be 
accounted  a  specially  fine  animal,  but  in  Central  Europe 
are  found  magnificent  harts  with  as  many  as  sixty-six  points, 
and  quite  doubling  in  weight  the  twenty  to  thirty  stone  of 
the  finest  Scotch  stags,  such  as  are  found  in  the  woodlands 
of  Perthshire.  The  great  animals  of  Southern  Germany 
and  Austria  belong  to  the  estates  of  the  monarchs  and 
rich  feudal  lords,  and  the  Deer  raid  the  growing  crops  of 
the  agriculturist  with  more  freedom  than  would  be  per- 
mitted in  Britain,  and  are  thus  fed  up  into  splendid 
specimens  of  their  tribe. 

Phosphate  of  lime  is  the  chief  ingredient  in  the  Deer's 
antler.  Just  as  with  our  domestic  poultry  it  is  necessary  for 
them  to  eat  in  some  form  the  lime  which  strengthens  the 
shell  of  the  egg,  so  the  Deer,  if  it  be  meant  to  produce  a 
good  pair  of  antlers,  must  have  access  to  some  source 
whence  lime  can  be  obtained.  If  hens  cannot  obtain  the 
necessary  mineral  substance  they  will  eat  even  their  own 
eggs,  and  so,  after  the  antlers  have  been  shed,  the  male  Deer 
commences  to  eat  them.  That  a  Deer  with  its  little  mouth, 
feeble  jaws,  graminivorous  teeth,  and  ruminating  stomach, 
should  attempt  to  eat  shed  bone,  which  would  try  even  the 
jaws  and  teeth  of  a  hyaena,  seems  sufficiently  absurd.  But, 
nevertheless,  the  Deer  does  contrive,  by  patient  gnawing,  to 
assimilate  every  particle  of  a  shed  antler,  in  the  absence  of 
which  it  will  take  to  a  bone,  and  treat  it  in  the  same  way. 
Thus  we  can  account  for  the  fact  that,  even  in  districts 
where  the  Deer  tribe  abound,  it  is  seldom  the  case  that  a 
stray  antler  can  be  found  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  weeks. 


348  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

The  Red  Deer  is  gregarious,  but  the  males  and  females 
keep  apart  except  during  the  pairing  season,  which  com- 
mences about  the  end  of  September,  when  the  herds  break 
up  into  a  number  of  families,  each  consisting  of  several 
females  and  one  male.  At  this  period  the  harts  become 
dangerous,  which  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  Red  Deer  are 
seldom  chosen  to  roam  in  a  semi-domesticated  state  in 
parks  and  other  places  frequented  by  foot  passengers. 
Even  in  captivity  the  hart  can  seldom  be  approached  with 
safety.  In  the  forests  and  uplands  the  males  engage  in 
savage  conflicts,  antlers  are  frequently  broken,  and  some- 
times they  get  interlocked,  and  can  only  be  released  by  a 
forester. 

The  hind  usually  conceals  her  fawn  in  the  heather,  where 
the  little  creature  will  lie  motionless  until  one  nearly  steps 
upon  it.  Though  the  mother  is  apparently  absent,  she  is 
within  sight  of  her  offspring,  and  will  rush  to  guard  it 
against  a  wild  cat,  fox,  or  other  hungry  carnivore. 

In  Scotland  the  Red  Deer  is  killed  chiefly  by  driving  or 
stalking ;  but  with  rifles  of  long  range  and  the  utmost  pre- 
cision the  chase  is  not  so  arduous  as  it  was  in  olden  times. 
Being  a  capital  swimmer,  a  stag,  when  hard  pressed,  will 
take  to  either  lake  or  stream  in  the  hope  of  defeating  the 
pursuing  hounds,  which  are  chiefly  used  in  the  chase  in 
Devonshire.  It  is  a  stirring  sight  to  see  a  stag  at  bay 
upon  a  rock  in  the  midst  of  the  water,  making  angry 
sweeps  with  his  antlers  that  bid  a  whole  pack  give  pause, 
until,  alas  !  the  fatal  rifle-shot  puts  an  end  to  the  gallant 
struggle. 

In  Devonshire  no  less  than  two  hundred  and  seventy-five 
Deer  were  killed  in  the  five  years  ending  1892;  but  since  that 
time  the  numbers  of  the  Deer  increased  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  cause  an  outcry  on  the  part  of  the  farmers,  whose 
crops  suffered  from  the  ravages  of  the  roaming  herds.  In 
1905  as  many  as  three  hundred  and  seventy  Deer  were 
killed  by  the  five  packs  of  hounds  that  hunt  the  Exmoor 
and  adjacent  districts,  which  did  something  towards 
reducing  the  numbers  of  the  Deer  to  reasonable  pro- 
portions. 

Let  it  be  granted  that  there  may  be  two  opinions  con- 


THE  FALLOW   DEER  349 

cerning  the  cruelty  inseparably  attached  to  hunting  the 
wild  Red  Deer  for  purposes  of  sport.  But  there  can  be 
no  palliation  of  the  brutal  practice  as  followed  in  some 
of  the  southern  counties,  where  the  quarry  consists  of  a 
frightened  and  only  half-wild  animal,  turned  out  of  a  box 
just  previously  to  the  commencement  of  the  hunt.  Very 
often,  too,  when  the  animal  has  been  run  down,  it  is 
rescued  from  the  hounds  only  to  provide  sport  upon 
another  occasion. 


FALLOW    DEER    (Cervus    dama). 
Coloured  Plate  XXV.  Fig.  3. 

The  familiar  Fallow  Deer,  which  is  so  ornamental  an 
inhabitant  of  many  parks  and  pleasure-grounds,  easily 
accommodates  itself  to  domesticated  ways,  and  becomes 
much  more  tame  than  the  generality  of  sheep.  At  the 
time  of  year,  however,  when  the  males  are  doing  battle 
for  their  partners,  they  consider  any  living  creature  as  a 
rival,  and  attack  it  furiously.  It  is  as  well  to  keep  out  of 
their  way  until  they  have  settled  all  their  households,  as 
even  the  keeper  who  feeds  them  becomes  an  object 
of  suspicion. 

The  Fallow  Deer  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into 
Britain  by  the  Romans.  It  probably  died  out  in  later 
times,  and  James  I.  is  sometimes  credited  with  having 
reintroduced  it  from  Norway.  In  all  probability  the 
original  habitat  of  this  species  of  Deer  was  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean,  but  in  any  case  Fallow  Deer  existed 
in  Windsor  Park  quite  one  and  a  quarter  centuries  before 
James  came  to  the  throne. 

Smaller  and  more  slender  than  the  Red  Deer,  a  full- 
grown  fallow  buck  rarely  exceeds  three  feet  in  height  at 
the  withers.  Its  head  is  short  and  broad,  and  it  has  a 
tail  six  or  seven  inches  long.  In  both  sexes  the  colour  of 
the  coat  in  summer  is  fawn  or  yellowish-brown,  marked  all 
over  above  with  large  white  spots.  In  winter  the  spots 
nearly  completely  disappear,  and  the  colour  becomes 
more  sombre,  taking  on  a  greyish  tint.  The  Fallow 


350  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

Deer  of  Epping  Forest  are  not  spotted,  and,  singularly 
enough,  the  fawns  are  of  the  same  dark  brown  colour  as 
their  parents. 

A  special  feature  of  the  antlers  is  the  manner  in  which 
the  upper  portions  flatten  or  palmate — i.e.,  they  take  on  the 
shape  of  a  hand  (Lat.,  palma,  a  palm).  Twenty  to  twenty- 
seven  inches  is  a  good  length  of  antler,  and  there  is  no 
record  of  one  as  long  as  thirty  inches.  The  male  up  to  its 
sixth  year  takes  a  fresh  name  each  season  with  the  annual 
change  in  its  spreading  crest.  A  fawn  is  antlerless.  The 
'  Pricket '  possesses  simple  snags,  to  which  the  '  Sorrel '  adds 
two  front  branches  a  year  later.  In  the  next  season  the 
increasing  antler  shows  a  slight  amount  of  palmation, 
the  animal  becoming  a  '  Buck  of  the  first  lead '  in  its  fifth 
year,  and  a  Buck  complete  in  its  sixth.  A  well-grown 
animal  will  turn  the  scale  at  two  hundred  pounds. 

The  Fallow  Deer  has  to  be  supplied  with  hay  and  corn 
in  winter,  owing  to  living  in  enclosed  tracts  where  its 
natural  food  is  limited  and  soon  exhausted.  It  is  par- 
ticularly fond  of  horse-chestnuts,  for  which  reason  this 
tree  is  largely  planted  in  deer  parks. 

On  February  8,  1899,  a  pack  of  hounds  chased  a  Red 
Hind  into  Pixton  Park,  where  they  ran  it  down  and  killed. 
The  dogs  then  fell  upon  a  herd  of  tame  Fallow  Deer,  of 
which  they  killed  seventeen  before  the  huntsmen  could 
come  up  to  stop  the  slaughter. 

The  extinct  Irish  Elk  is  supposed  to  have  been  only  a 
species  of  the  common  Fallow  Deer.  In  County  Water- 
ford  has  been  dug  up  a  pair  of  antlers,  the  right  one  of 
which  measured  six  feet  on  the  inside,  while  the  left  one 
was  four  inches  shorter.  From  tip  to  tip  the  spread  just 
exceeded  nine  feet.  The  chase  of  an  animal  so  immense 
must  have  furnished  rare  excitement,  when  one  re- 
members the  clumsy  weapons  with  which  primitive  man 
was  provided.  The  Irish  Elk  roamed  over  Great  Britain 
as  well  as  over  a  great  portion  of  the  Continent. 

The  Fallow  Deer  of  Mesopotamia  is  not  only  a  larger 
animal,  but  is  more  brightly  coloured,  and  there  is  less 
palmation  of  the  antlers,  which  are  more  vertical  and 
spreading. 


THE  ROE   DEER  35' 

EOE   DEEE  (Capreolus  caprea) 
Coloured  Plate  XXIV.  Fig.  3. 

This  elegant  and  active  Deer  is  the  smallest  of  the  Euro- 
pean species,  even  an  adult  buck  being  little  more  than  two 
feet  high  at  the  shoulder,  and  weighing  only  about  sixty 
pounds.  The  Roe  Deer  is  a  native  of  the  British  Isles,  but 
is  also  found  in  many  parts  of  Europe  between  the  Baltic 
Sea  and  almost  as  far  South  as  Spain  and  Italy ;  and 
from  the  Caucasus  it  extends  into  Persia.  In 
Asia  it  is  of  larger  size  than  elsewhere.  In 
Britain  the  Roe  Deer  is  now  found  in  a  wild 
state  only  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
except  for  a  few  scattered  herds  in  Blackmoor 
Vale,  Dorset,  and  Epping  Forest.  In  many 
English  parks  are  herds  of  semi-domesticated 
animals. 

In  summer  the  coarse  and  stiff  hair  of  the 
Roe   Deer  is  a    dark   reddish-brown,  with   a 
white   haunch   patch  ;    in   winter  the  colour 
is  grey  with  a  tinge   of   yellow.      Normally, 
the  nine-inch-long  antler  possesses  but  three 
points,  each  taking  a  year  to  grow  ;  but  not 
infrequently  there  are  a  number  of  other  ill- 
formed  and  irregular  tines.     While  in  the  stag 
the    antlers    are    shed    early   in    spring    and       BOXES  OF 
renewed  with  the  advance  of  summer,  those  T^ROE°DEER. 
of  the   Roe    Deer   are   shed    by  the   end   of 
December  and  renewed   by  the  following    February.     No 
antler  has  been  found  to  exceed  thirteen  inches  in  length  ; 
but  it  has    been   known  to   prove  a  sufficient  weapon  to 
kill  a  man.     Sometimes  there  is  a  third  antler  in  the  middle, 
and  at  rare   intervals   a   hind   is   found   in   possession    of 
antlers. 

Wild,  shy,  and  cautious,  the  Roe  Deer  generally  frequents 
woods,  where  it  lives  in  small  companies  of  a  pair  and 
their  young,  which  often  number  two  at  a  birth,  though 
three  is  by  no  means  a  rarity.  The  spots  on  the  coat  of 
the  fawn  fade  away  towards  the  end  of  its  first  year.  In 


352  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

one  particular  at  least  the  Roebuck  is  unlike  others  of  his 
kind;  he  never  forsakes  his  mate. 

When  hunted,  this  Deer  is  said  to  endeavour  to  elude  its 
pursuers  by  the  most  subtle  artifices  :  it  repeatedly  returns 
upon  its  former  steps  till,  by  various  windings,  it  has  quite 
confounded  the  scent.  The  cunning  animal  then,  by  a 
sudden  spring,  bounds  to  one  side,  and,  lying  close  down, 
permits  hounds  to  pass  quite  near  without  offering  to  stir. 

The  Roe  Deer  can  never  be  perfectly  tamed.  Even  in 
captivity  it  retains  most  of  its  natural  wildness,  refusing 
even  to  become  friendly  with  the  one  at  whose  hand  it 
feeds.  In  hunting  the  Roe  Deer  in  Scotland  the  animals 
are  frequently  driven  to  the  guns,  which  are  often  loaded 
with  shot  instead  of  ball  cartridge.  One  notable  day's  bag 
in  Inverness-shire  consisted  of  sixty-five  bucks  and  thirteen 
hinds.  On  the  Continent  this  species  of  Deer  is  still  more 
abundant,  and  in  Austria  over  sixty-eight  thousand  have 
fallen  to  the  hunters  in  a  single  year. 

ELK  (A  Ices  macklis). 
Coloured  Plate  XXVI.  Fig.  i. 

The  Elk  or  Moose,  huge  and  ungainly,  is  the  giant  of  the 
Deer  tribe,  attaining  a  height  of  from  six  to  nearly  eight 
feet,  and  weighing  as  much  as  fourteen  hundred  pounds. 
Fossil  remains  prove  that  the  animal  existed  in  the  British 
Isles  some  ten  thousand  years  ago.  It  now  inhabits  the 
extreme  North  of  Europe  and  the  cold  regions  of  Asia 
and  North  America,  being  commonest  in  the  last-named. 
There  are  only  a  few  strictly  preserved  animals  in  the 
north  of  Scandinavia  and  various  parts  of  European 
Russia ;  in  Siberia  it  is  more  numerous.  In  the  middle 
of  the  last  century  this  great  Deer  was  common  throughout 
the  north  of  the  New  World,  but  reckless  hunting  for  the 
sake  of  its  hide  has  greatly  diminished  its  numbers. 
Labrador  and  the  basin  of  the  Lower  Mackenzie  are 
now  the  chief  hunting-grounds,  and  there  the  Govern- 
ment restricts  the  slaughter,  and  only  permits  fair  sporting 
methods  of  capture. 


THE  ELK  353 

The  Elk  is  remarkable  for  its  huge,  broadly  palmated, 
shovel-shaped  antlers,  the  upper  portions  forming  concave 
sheets  of  bony  tissue,  roughly  measuring  forty  inches  in 
length  and  half  as  much  in  width.  They  attain  their  full 
length,  varying  from  three  to  five  feet,  in  about  five  years, 
after  which  they  increase  in  breadth  and  weight  until  the 
animal  is  ten  or  more  years  old.  The  coat  of  the  animal 
consists  of  harsh,  brittle,  close-set  hair,  in  colour  a  dark 
reddish-brown,  varying  to  yellowish  grey ;  and  in  winter 
there  is  a  plentiful  under-fur.  The  neck  is  covered  with 
longer  hair,  forming  a  ruff  underneath. 

It  is  the  manner  in  which  the  Elk  carries  its  short,  thick 
neck,  outstretched  at  a  lower  angle  than 
the  withers,  that  gives  the  animal  its 
awkward  appearance,  which  the  greater 
length  of  the  fore  legs  does  nothing  to 
lessen.  The  upper  lip  is  rather  singu- 
larly developed,  forming  a  great  muffle, 
as  it  is  called.  This  mobile  extension 
is  particularly  useful  in  browsing  upon 
the  leaves  of  trees,  which  the  Elk 
prefers  to  grazing.  The  muffle,  when 
cooked,  is  considered  to  be  the  best  part 
of  the  animal. 

While    running,    the    Elk    makes    a 
singular  clattering  sound  at  each  step.  UNDER  ^^  ELK>S 
This  is  caused   by  the  structure   of  its  HOOF. 

hoofs,  which  are  so  modified  that  when 
the  foot  rests  with  its  weight  upon  the  ground,  the  hoofs 
separate  widely,  so  as  to  present  a  large  surface  on  which 
so  heavy  an  animal  can  be  borne.  As  it  raises  its  foot  from 
the  ground  the  two  halves  of  the  hoof  fall  together  and 
so  cause  the  characteristic  clatter,  which  has  been  com- 
pared to  the  sound  of  castanets. 

In  habit  the  Moose  is  generally  an  almost  solitary  animal ; 
it  is  seldom  that  more  than  one  at  a  time  is  seen  except  in 
the  pairing  season,  or  when  the  female  is  still  accompanied 
by  her  young.  Upon  rare  occasions  a  bull  will  remain 
with  the  old  and  young  females.  Wary  in  the  extreme,  and 
ready  to  detect  the  pres.^ce  of  man  by  hearing,  scent,  or 

24 


354  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

sight,  the  Moose  does  not  yield  itself  an  easy  prey,  but 
taxes  the  resources  of  the  hunter  to  the  utmost.  If,  for 
example,  a  hunter  should  come  within  a  mile  of  a  Moose, 
and  allow  the  wind  to  blow  from  him  to  the  Deer,  the 
animal  will  scent  him  at  once  and  make  off  with 
immense  strides,  greatly  accelerating  its  usual  high 
shambling  trot.  Trappers  and  hunters  assert  that  even 
amid  the  most  furious  tempest,  the  snapping  of  a  twig  by 
human  hand  or  foot  will  be  detected  by  the  cautious  and 
suspicious  animal,  causing  it  to  be  additionally  watchful 
for  hours  afterwards. 

There  is,  in  fact,  only  one  part  of  the  year  in  which  the 
Moose  can  be  hunted  openly.  When  the  snow  is  deep,  and 
a  sharp  frost  has  covered  it  with  a  thin  crust,  the  Moose- 
hunter  rejoices.  He  puts  on  his  snow-shoes,  and  by  their 
aid  skims  lightly  over  the  frozen  surface.  He  then  boldly 
gives  chase  to  the  Moose,  which,  by  reason  of  its  great  weight, 
breaks  through  the  ice-crust  and  sinks  beyond  its  knees  at 
every  step.  By  driving  the  animal  incessantly  through  this 
treacherous  snow,  the  hunter  tires  it  so  effectually  that 
when  he  comes  up  with  it  the  Moose  has  no  strength  left 
wherewith  to  resist.  But  even  at  such  a  time  it  is  necessary 
for  the  hunter  to  exercise  caution,  for  if  he  approach  too 
near,  the  animal  will  turn  upon  its  pursuer,  leap  upon  him, 
and  trample  him  underfoot. 

On  firm  ground  the  Moose  is  a  most  formidable  anta- 
gonist, using  not  only  its  horns  but  its  feet  with  terrible 
effect.  In  face  of  an  injured  and  infuriated  animal  a 
hunter  will  sometimes  shelter  himself  behind  a  tree,  and  in 
its  efforts  to  reach  its  foe  the  enraged  Moose  will  completely 
strip  the  bark  from  the  trunk  by  striking  vicious  blows  with 
its  forefeet. 

The  wily  Red  Indian  stalks  the  Moose  with  marvellous 
skill.  Selecting  a  place  of  concealment,  upon  a  birch-bark 
pipe  he  gives  the  call  of  the  cow  Moose  with  a  fidelity 
that  completely  deceives  the  bull.  With  a  bellow  of 
defiance  to  all  other  males,  the  bull  comes  crashing 
through  the  forest,  and  all  unsuspectingly  offers  itself  as 
a  fair  mark  to  the  artful  red  man,  who  reaps  the  reward 
of  his  ruse. 


Plate  XXVI. 


l.Elk 


2.  Reindeer 


THE  CARIBOU  355 

REINDEER   {Rangifer  tarandus). 
Coloured  Plate  XXVI.  Fig.  2. 

Just  as  the  Prong-horned  Antelope  affords  an  exception 
to  the  otherwise  universal  rule  that  the  hollow-horned 
ruminants  do  not  shed  their  horns,  so  the  Reindeer  is  an 
exception  to  the  rule  that  in  the  solid-horned  ruminants  the 
antlers  belong  only  to  the  male.  In  the  Reindeer  both 
sexes  have  antlers,  though  those  of  the  male,  often  nearly 
five  feet  in  length,  are  quite  unlike  those  of  the  female.  In 
both  cases  the  antlers  originate  further  behind  the  eyes  than 
in  most  of  the  Deer  tribe.  In  the  males  are  particularly 
noticeable  the  brow  tines,  which  are  palmated  in  a 
special  degree  well  over  the  animal's  face.  This  share-like 
expansion,  larger  in  one  tine  than  the  other,  forms  a  useful 
tool  with  which  to  burrow  in  the  snow  in  search  of  lichens, 
mosses,  &c.  The  antlers  of  the  female  are  smaller, 
slenderer,  and  with  less  palmation.  Really,  Reindeer  antlers 
are  seldom  exactly  alike  in  any  two  animals,  and  often  in 
the  same  animal  the  two  antlers  differ  widely  from  each 
other. 

The  Reindeer  is  found  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America,  and  though  it  differs  considerably  in 
size  in  different  regions,  there  is  a  consensus  of  opinion 
that  there  is  really  but  one  species.  In  America,  the 
Caribou,  as  the  Reindeer  is  called,  is  smaller  in  the  barren 
lands  of  the  North  than  it  is  in  the  more  southern  wood- 
land region.  In  Europe,  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
Reindeer  existed  in  Poland  ;  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  it 
was  found  in  the  Black  Forest,  and  in  still  earlier  periods  as 
far  South  as  the  Pyrenees.  Nowadays  it  does  not  extend 
further  South  than  the  northern  shore  of  the  Baltic  Sea. 

The  Reindeer  possesses  a  characteristic  Deer-like  form, 
with  a  stout  heavy  neck  and  short  limbs,  the  whole  build 
denoting  considerable  power.  .  The  feet  are  marked  by  the 
wide  cleft  and  the  well-developed  lateral  hoofs,  as  in  the  elk. 
An  American  buck  of  the  larger  variety  stands  about  four 
and  a  half  feet  high  at  the  withers,  and  an  exceptionally  fine 
animal  will  weigh  four  hundred  pounds.  Dark  brown, 


356  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

tending  to  grey,  is  the  prevailing  colour  ;  the  face,  neck, 
and  throat  are  whitish,  and  there  is  a  white  band  round 
each  fetlock.  There  is,  however,  considerable  variation 
in  tint  in  individuals,  and  in  winter  the  almost  crimped  and 
wavy  hair  is  always  lighter,  in  some  cases  nearly  white. 
The  under-coat  of  woolly  fur  renders  the  skin  especially 
valuable  for  clothing  and  other  coverings  in  the  Arctic 
regions. 

Concerning  the  habits  of  the  wild  Reindeer  compara- 
tively little  is  accurately  known.  Baron  Nordenskiold 
closely  observed  it  in  Spitzbergen,  in  which  desolate  region 
herds  of  Reindeer  are  very  numerous.  Owing  to  the 
nature  of  its  habitat  the  Reindeer  is  of  necessity  a  migrant. 
In  the  short  summer  the  animal  seeks  the  ice-free  grassy 
valleys,  withdrawing  in  the  autumn  to  the  sea-coast,  where 
its  food  is  chiefly  seaweed.  In  winter  it  retires  to  the  high 
lands  in  the  interior,  where  it  can  find  a  living  on  the 
lichens  and  mosses.  In  America  the  northern  variety 
migrates  southwards  in  winter  to  the  woodland  regions  ;  in 
spring  a  plague  of  gnats  and  gadflies  drives  the  animals 
back  to  the  colder  uplands. 

Of  the  various  animals  which  man  has  domesticated, 
some,  as  the  ox,  sheep,  horse,  and  the  dog,  have  spread  over 
the  globe,  and,  particularly  in  company  with  the  white 
man,  prosper  and  thrive  thousands  of  miles  away  from  their 
original  habitat.  Others  again,  of  undoubted  utility, 
remain  bound  to  certain  latitudes,  isolated  regions,  where, 
with  a  nature  accordingly  adapted,  their  services  are  invalu- 
able— thus  are  the  camel  for  the  arid  deserts  of  the  East, 
the  llama  for  the  snow-clad  Cordilleras,  and  the  Reindeer 
for  the  hills  and  plains  of  Lapland. 

Various  tribes  of  Indians  would  be  unable  to  exist  in  the 
Arctic  portions  of  British  North  America  were  it  not  for 
the  immense  herds  of  Caribou.  Of  the  antlers  they  form 
fish  spears  and  hooks,  and,  previous  to  the  introduction  of 
European  iron,  ice-chisels  and  various  other  tools  were 
likewise  made  of  them.  From  the  hide  is  made  soft  and 
pliable  leather,  and  when  sixty  or  seventy  skins  are  sewed 
together,  they  make  a  tent  sufficient  for  the  residence  of 
a  large  family.  The  shin-bone  of  the  Deer,  split  so  as  to 


THE  REINDEER  357 

present  a  sharp  edge,  is  the  knife  that  is  used  to  remove  the 
hair  in  the  process  of  making  the  leather. 

The  undressed  hide  is  cut  into  thongs  of  varying  thick- 
ness, which  are  twisted  into  deer-snares,  bow-strings,  net 
lines,  and,  in  fact,  supply  all  the  purposes  of  rope  ;  the  finer 
thongs  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  fishing-nets,  or 
in  working  snow-shoes,  while  the  tendons  of  the  dorsal 
muscles  are  split  into  fine  and  excellent  sewing  thread. 
Nor  is  the  Reindeer  less  useful  as  food,  but  the  Indians 
never  attempted  its  domestication,  regarding  it  solely  as 
a  beast  of  the  chase. 

In  Northern  Asia  the  Reindeer  is  used  as  a  beast  of 
burden,  but  it  is  in  Lapland  that  the  value  of  the  animal 
is  most  appreciated.  On  the  Reindeer  the  Laplanders 
depend  almost  wholly  for  their  means  of  life.  It  is  too 
valuable  for  them  to  feed  largely  upon  its  flesh,  but  they 
make  much  use  of  its  milk,  and,  besides,  it  is  beyond  all 
price  as  a  beast  of  transport,  either  as  carrying  burdens  or 
as  drawing  the  sledge. 

Among  the  Laps,  the  Reindeer  is  the  only  wealth,  and 
is  to  them  what  cattle  are  to  the  Kaffir  tribes  of  South 
Africa.  Happy  the  man  who  possesses  a  herd  of  a  thousand 
Reindeer,  as  he  thereby  becomes  a  chief  among  his  fellows, 
very  much  as  was  the  case  in  the  old  patriarchal  times,  with 
the  herds  of  camels  and  oxen  and  flocks  of  sheep.  As 
Reindeer  do  not  thrive  except  in  company,  those  who 
possess  only  a  few  unite  them  into  one  herd,  each  marking 
his  own  animals.  A  herd  of  five  hundred  antlered  Reindeer 
collected  together  at  milking-time  must  present  a  striking 
sight,  in  full  accordance  with  the  wild,  romantic  scenery; 
nor  can  it  fail  to  bring  to  mind  scenes  of  a  similar  character 
in  the  days  when  the  patriarchs  were  shepherds,  and  Kings 
were  called  from  the  fold. 

But  for  the  Reindeer  the  Laplander  would  be  cut  off 
from  communication  with  other  peoples  during  a  great  part 
of  the  year.  The  sledge  is  a  light  vehicle,  running  not  on 
wheels,  but  on  flat  runners.  The  Reindeer  is  yoked  to  it  by 
a  collar,  and  guided  by  reins  attached  to  its  antlers ;  and 
with  a  load  of  several  hundred  pounds  the  animal  will  trot 
over  the  glazed  snow  at  the  rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour,  a 


358  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

journey  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  nineteen  hours  being 
by  no  means  uncommon.  At  the  palace  of  Drotningholm, 
in  Sweden,  is  a  portrait  of  a  Reindeer  which,  upon  an 
occasion  of  great  emergency,  drew  an  officer  with  important 
despatches  the  incredible  distance  of  eight  hundred  miles  in 
forty-eight  hours. 

The  Lapland  Reindeer  is  a  smaller  animal  than  that  of 
America,  the  male  averaging  only  about  four  feet  in  height. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  naturalise  this  Deer  in  the 
British  Isles.  Herds  have  been  placed  among  the  moun- 
tains of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  as  well  as  in  parks  and  heaths 
in  England ;  but  every  experiment  has  failed,  the  animals 
sickening  and  dying  in  comparatively  very  short  periods. 

WAPITI  (Cervus  canadensis). 
Plate  XXXVII. 

The  Wapiti  is  the  Red  Deer  of  the  New  World,  where 
at  one  time  it  ranged  from  Mexico  as  far  North  as  the 
Great  Slave  Lake.  With  the  advance  of  civilisation  this 
noble  Deer  has  retreated,  until  in  greatly  decreased  numbers 
it  is  now  found  chiefly  only  in  the  Cascade  and  Rocky 
ranges  and  adjacent  coast  elevations,  the  mountains  of 
Vancouver  Island,  and  in  the  forested  regions  of  the 
North-west  territories  of  British  North  America. 

The  Wapiti,  or  Elk,  as  hunters  often  erroneously  call  it, 
is  a  considerably  bigger  animal  than  the  British  Red 
Deer,  to  which  it  is  closely  related.  Only  the  moose 
exceeds  it  in  size,  a  fine  male  standing  from  five  to  five 
and  a  half  feet  high,  with  antlers  measuring  as  much  as 
five  feet  in  length,  the  brown  beams  with  white  burnished 
tips  completing  a  superb  head,  perhaps  second  to  none 
in  the  animal  world.  Even  in  captivity  in  the  Zoo  the 
antlers  of  the  Wapiti  weigh  about  forty  pounds. 

The  neck  of  the  animal  is  strong ;  the  limbs  clean 
and  finely  knit;  and  the  whole  figure  displays  great 
power  and  vigour.  The  coat  differs  from  that  of  the  Red 
Deer,  being  creamy  grey  for  the  most  part,  darkening 
into  brown  on  the  head  and  neck.  The  legs  are  brown, 


PLATE  XXXVII. 


HEAD    OF    A    WAPITI. 


PLATE  XXXVIII. 


T.     SAMBUR.  2.     AXIS    DEER. 

(SlY    fifl&   362) 

(Pliolos   II'.  S.   Herri  ilgc,  F.Z.S.) 


THE  WAPITI  359 

and  the  white  patch  on  the  hindquarters  is  edged  with 
black. 

A  fight  between  two  male  Wapitis  is  one  of  the  sternest 
struggles  imaginable.  When  an  animal  intends  to  dis- 
pute the  supremacy  of  the  leader  of  a  herd  he  gives 
vent  to  a  loud  whistle  of  defiance,  which  is  promptly 
answered  by  a  similar  cry  of  the  angry  leader,  and  the 
animals  meet  with  a  clash  of  the  antlers  that  can  be 
heard  for  a  considerable  distance.  Bellowing  and  grinding 
their  teeth,  with  lowered  heads  they  stalk  round  each 
other,  advancing,  retreating,  and  feinting  until  there  is 
an  opening  for  a  charge.  Even  in  the  mildest  contest 
ugly  wounds  are  given  and  antlers  are  frequently  broken. 
Sometimes,  too,  the  antlers  of  the  enraged  animals  inter- 
lock, and  both  combatants  perish  miserably  of  hunger,  or 
become  the  easy  prey  of  the  bear,  coyote,  or  other 
beast  of  prey. 

The  hind  in  defence  of  her  fawn  exhibits  the  utmost 
courage,  offering  a  stout  resistance  to  hungry  carnivores, 
while  she  utters  a  loud  cry  which  summons  to  her 
assistance  all  of  the  herd  in  the  near  vicinity,  and  then 
all  join  furiously  in  beating  off  the  foe.  The  young 
fawn,  when  discovered  in  the  thicket  where  the  hind  has 
hidden  it,  will  feign  death  with  limbs  as  limp  as  possible, 
only  forgetting  to  close  its  eyes  to  complete  the  illusion. 

The  flesh  of  the  Wapiti  is  said  to  be  perhaps  more 
nutritious  than  that  of  any  other  Deer ;  and  its  skin 
makes  the  most  valuable  leather,  preserving  its  suppleness 
even  after  being  saturated  with  water,  on  which  account 
it  is  always  prized  by  the  native  Indians.  The  red 
man  hunts  the  Wapiti  by  forming  a  cordon  of  mounted 
men  around  a  herd,  detaching  selected  animals  and  then 
riding  them  down  to  a  standstill ;  or  sometimes  a  whole 
herd  would  be  driven  over  a  precipice.  In  more  modern 
times,  however,  the  rifle  is  most  frequently  employed,  for 
the  Wapiti  is  by  no  means  difficult  to  approach,  and  a 
shot  in  any  part  of  the  body  is  usually  sufficient  to  lay 
the  big  animal  low.  The  Indians  not  infrequently  keep 
the  animal  in  captivity,  using  it  as  a  beast  of  burden  and 
for  draught  purposes. 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


The  Altai  and  the  Manchurian  Wapiti  of  Asia  are  very 
similar  animals,  less  in  bulk,  but  with  antlers  bigger  in 
proportion.  These  Deer  appear  to  agree  with  the  sugges- 
tion that  the  American  Wapiti  originally  reached  the  New 
World  from  Asia  by  way  of  Bering  Strait. 


MISCELLANEOUS   AMERICAN    DEER. 

The  Elk,  Reindeer,  and  Wapiti  are  in  many  respects 
allied  to  different  species  in  the  Old  World ;  but  the 
remaining  Deer  of  the  New  World  show  marked  differ- 
ences in  the  construction  of  the  skull  and  in  the  shape 
of  the  antlers.  There  are  no  brow  tines,  and  the  beams 
consist  either  of  simple  spikes  or  branches  of  a  fork-like 
character.  The  chief  species  are  the  following  : — 

The  Virginian,  or 
White-tailed  Deer  (Cariacus 
virginianus)  is  by  far  the 
commonest  Deer  of  North 
America,  different  varieties 
ranging  throughout  the 
United  States  from  Mexico 
to  Canada.  It  is  a  grace- 
ful animal,  slightly  smaller 
than  the  Fallow  Deer, 
with  a  coat  of  reddish 
yellow  in  summer  and 
light  grey  in  winter.  The 
antlers  differ  a  great  deal 
in  the  several  varieties,  but 
the  front  prong  of  the 
main  fork  is  generally 
better  developed  than  the  hinder  one. 

The  animal  is  shy  and  timid,  and  as  it  is  extremely 
speedy  and  an  excellent  swimmer,  its  capture  is  by  no 
means  easy.  A  well-known  hunter  describes  it  as  '  an 
exasperating  little  beast/  in  whose  haunts  the  sportsman  on 
foot  must  needs  almost  crawl  if  he  wish  to  bag  his  quarry. 
Often  the  Deer  make  their  home  in  cane-grass  seven  feet 
high,  through  which  the  hunters  ride  on  horseback,  driving 


ANTLERS  OF  THE  VIRGINIAN   DEER. 


VARIOUS  AMERICAN   DEER  361 

before  them  the  animals,  which  dash  away  in  a  series  of 
leaps,  in  which  they  show  their  backs  above  the  tall  grass. 
Mr.  Selous  states  that  he  shot  one  when  it  was  quite  six 
feet  off  the  ground. 

The  Mule  Deer  (Cariacus  macrotis),  found  in  the  Missouri 
basin  and  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
is  slightly  larger  than  the  Virginian  Deer.  Its  distinguish- 
ing features  are  the  enormous  size  of  its  ears  and  its  great 
double-pronged  antlers,  which  attain  a  length  of  over  two 
and  a  half  feet,  with  a  span  of  nearly  forty  inches.  In 
summer,  when  its  coat  is  thinly  haired,  the  Mule  Deer 
retreats  to  very  near  the  snow  line  to  avoid  tormenting  flies. 

The  Pampas  Deer  (Cariacus  campestris),  as  implied  in  its 
name,  is  a  South  American  species  with  a  coat  of  reddish - 
brown,  glossy  hair.  The  antler  boasts  of  but  three  points, 
the  two  at  the  extremity  being  far  more  developed  than  the 
tine  midway  along  the  beam.  When  a  hind  and  her  fawn 
are  approached  by  an  enemy — hounds,  for  example— the 
mother  and  the  young  one  adopt  an  extraordinary  method 
to  secure  their  safety.  The  fawn  will  dash  away  at  the 
top  of  its  speed  for  perhaps  a  distance  of  over  half  a  mile, 
where  it  will  lie  down  in  concealment.  Meantime  the 
mother  stands  still  until  the  dogs  are  close  upon  her, 
when  she  too  sets  off,  but  in  an  opposite  direction  to 
that  taken  by  the  fawn.  She  will  at  times  slacken  her 
speed,  and  even  assume  a  limping  gait,  all  the  while 
enticing  the  pursuers  from  the  original  starting-point. 
At  length  she  will  increase  her  speed,  and,  working  round 
to  rejoin  her  fawn,  will  often  get  clear  away  from  the 
hunters. 

The  Brockets,  of  which  there  are  several  species  in  the 
northern  portion  of  South  America,  are  small  animals 
from  one  and  three-quarters  to  two  and  a  quarter  feet  in 
height.  The  antlers  of  the  full-grown  male  consist  only 
of  simple  spikes,  such  as  are  carried  by  the  Red  Deer  in 
its  first  year. 

The  little  Venada,  or  Pudu  Deer  (Pudua  humilis),  with 
its  rounded  head  and  rather  large  ears,  is  not  much  larger 
than  the  common  hare.  Its  antlers  are  but  two  tiny 
spikes.  The  home  of  the  animal  is  in  the  Chilian  Andes. 


362  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

ASIATIC   DEER. 

AXIS   DEER  (Cervus  axis). 

Plate  XXXVIII.  Fig.  2. 

The  Axis,  or  Spotted  Deer,  of  India  and  Ceylon,  about  the 
size  of  the  Fallow  Deer,  though  varying  somewhat  in 
colour  in  different  regions,  is  generally  a  rich  golden  brown, 
with  a  dark  stripe  along  the  back  and  a  white  streak  across 
the  haunches.  The  chief  feature  of  the  animal's  coat  are 
the  large  white  spots,  arranged  in  almost  longitudinal  lines, 
making  the  Axis,  or  Chital,  as  it  is  called,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  Deer  tribe. 

One  might  suppose  this  spotted  coat  would  make  the 
Chital  a  conspicuous  mark  for  the  hunter.  The  opposite, 
however,  is  the  case ;  for  the  covering  harmonises  with 
dead  vegetation  and  the  flecks  of  sunlight  passing  through 
the  dense  foliage.  The  three-tined  antlers  often  exceed 
three  feet  in  length. 

The  Axis  Deer  breeds  naturally  in  October,  but  in  English 
and  French  parks,  into  which  the  animal  has  been  success- 
fully introduced,  the  birth  of  a  fawn  at  such  a  time  would 
expose  the  young  animal  to  the  severe  weather  of  winter. 
It  is  a  singular  provision  of  nature  that  the  acclimatised 
animals  do  not  give  birth  to  their  young  until  June — that 
is,  about  the  same  time  as  the  Deer  among  which  they 
have  been  introduced. 

SAMBAR   (Cervus  unicolor). 
Plate  XXXVIII.  Fig.  i. 

The  Sambar,  or  Gerow,  is  the  largest  of  the  Rusine  group 
of  Deer,  the  antlers  of  which  consist  of  a  brow  tine  and 
a  simple  bifurcation  of  the  beam.  It  is  a  woodland  animal 
that  is  widely  distributed  in  India  and  the  south-east  of  Asia. 
The  finest  representative  of  a  number  of  similar  animals, 
the  Sambar  is  the  largest  of  the  true  Deer,  outside  the 
Elaphine  group,  of  which  the  Red  Deer  is  the  most  con- 


THE  SAM  BAR  363 

spicuous  example.  A  fine  Sambar  varies  from  four  to  five 
feet  in  height  at  the  withers,  and  attains  a  weight  of  as 
much  as  seven  hundred  pounds. 

The  general  colour  of  the  rather  shaggy,  wiry  hair  is  a 
deep  brown,  but  of  rather  a  yellowish  tint  in  the  female. 
Among  the  Indian  Deer  the  fawn  of  the  Sambar  is  the 
only  one  that  is  unspotted.  The  antler  consists  of  a 
brow  tine  followed  by  a  roughly  ridged  beam  from  three  to 
four  feet  in  length,  breaking  into  two  fairly  equal  snags  at 
the  top.  Save  for  their  size,  and  the  fact  that  the  long 
brow  tines  curve  sharply  upwards,  the  antlers  of  the 
Sambar  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Spayad  or  Red  Deer  in 
its  third  year.  It  is  said  that  in  some  cases  the  stags  do 
not  shed  their  antlers  for  two  or  three  years. 

The  Sambar  is  nocturnal  in  habit,  frequenting  jungly, 
wooded  hills,  seldom  in  herds  greater  than  a  dozen,  except 
in  the  pairing  season.  It  is  quite  remarkably  tenacious  of 
life,  and  it  is  only  when  struck  by  a  shot  in  one  of  a  few 
vital  spots  that  the  animal  falls  in  its  tracks.  It  is  usually 
stalked  or  beaten,  but  in  Ceylon  Sir  Samuel  Baker  used 
hounds  to  run  it  down.  In  the  chase  of  a  fine  buck  he 
describes  how  ' the  whole  pack  was  around  him;  but  not 
a  hound  had  a  chance  with  him,  and  he  repeatedly  charged 
in  among  them,  and  regularly  drove  them  before  him, 
sending  any  single  hound  spinning  whenever  he  came 
within  his  range.'  When  the  hunter  broke  cover  within  a 
few  yards  of  the  quarry  '  his  mane  was  bristled  up,  his 
nostril  was  distended/  as  he  commenced  carefully  to  pick 
his  way  along  narrow  precipices  with  the  whole  pack  in 
single  file  at  his  heels.  The  thrilling  hunt  continued,  the 
buck  leaping  across  some  boiling  rapids,  only  to  alight 
upon  a  steep  crag,  from  which  he  fell  into  the  torrent,  into 
which  some  of  the  dogs  also  rolled  over  in  a  confused 
mass.  The  Deer  escaped,  and  at  length  reached  a  platform 
from  which  it  could  not  proceed,  while  the  pack  prevented 
the  animal  returning  upon  its  tracks.  He  made  a  dash  into 
the  pack,  striking  out  with  his  horns  and  his  forefeet,  and 
then  sprang  into  the  abyss  below,  at  the  bottom  of  which 
he  was  afterwards  found  with  all  his  bones  broken. 

A  somewhat   similar    animal   is     the   Swamp    Deer,   or 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


Barasingha  (Cervus  duvuacelli),  Plate  XXXV.  Fig.  2, 
though  there  is  a  difference  in  the  antlers.  The  brow  tine, 

about  a  foot  in  length,  extends 
almost  at  right  angles  instead  of 
sharply  upwards,  and  the  prongs 
of  the  bifurcation  again  divide. 
The  bucks  attain  a  weight  of  from 
thirty  to  forty  stone. 

In  Schomburgk's  Deer  (Cervus 
schomburgki)  the  antlers  are  very 
similar  in  formation,  except  that 
the  beam  is  shorter  and  the  for- 
ward prong  considerably  smaller 
than  the  hind  one. 

Eld's  Deer  (Cervus  eldi)  pos- 
sesses a  very  distinctive  antler. 
The  brow  tine  bends  down  over 
the  forehead  and  then  upwards  to 
form  a  well  curved  hook.  The 
beam  does  not  bifurcate  until  very 
near  the  top,  where  the  short  fork 

breaks  out  into  perhaps  eight  or  even  more  points.  The 
length  of  the  antler  may  be  anything  from  forty  inches  to 
very  nearly  five  feet. 

The  food  of  Eld's  Deer  is  mainly  grass,  but  if  a  herd 
finds  its  way  into  the  paddy  fields  the  agriculturist  is  left 
lamenting.  In  habits  these  Deer  'are  very  wary  and 
difficult  to  approach,  especially  the  males.  They  are  also 
very  timid  and  easily  startled ;  the  males,  however,  when 
wounded  and  brought  to  bay  with  dogs,  get  very  savage 
and  charge  vigorously.  On  being  disturbed  they  invariably 
make  for  the  open.  ...  It  commences  by  giving  three  or 
four  bounds  like  the  Axis,  or  Spotted  Deer,  and  afterwards 
settles  down  into  a  long  trot,  which  it  will  keep  up  for  six 
or  seven  miles  on  end.' 

The  Burmese  formerly  hunted  Eld's  Deer  on  a  large 
scale,  the  men  of  neighbouring  villages  combining  to 
'encircle  three  or  four  moderate-sized  herds  with  long 
strings,  upon  which  plantain  leaves  were  tied  so  as  to 
flutter  in  the  wind.  .  .  .  The  Deer,  afraid  to  pass  the  scare- 


ANTLERS  OF 

SCHOMBURGK'S  DEER. 


VARIOUS  ASIATIC  DEER  365 

crows,  got  gradually  driven  together,  until  they  were  com- 
pletely surrounded  and  at  the  mercy  of  the  hunters.'  One 
battue  often  resulted  in  the  capture  of  two  hundred  deer ; 
and  as  the  species  was  likely  to  be  exterminated  the 
Government  forbade  methods  of  wholesale  slaughter. 

MUNTJAO  (Cervulus  muntjac}. 
Coloured  Plate  XXIV.  Fig.  2. 

The  Muntjacs  form  a  group  of  small  and  elegant  Deer, 
often  called  Jungle  Sheep,  which  are  found  in  India,  Burma, 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  some  of  the  larger  islands  of  the 
Indo-Malayan  Archipelago.  The  diminutive  antlers  are 
simple  in  character,  and  take  their  rise  from  bony,  skin- 
covered  knobs,  not  at  all  unlike  the  horns  of  the  giraffe. 
Commencing  below  the  eyes  are  two  elongated  ridges 
running  obliquely  downwards,  V-shaped,  gaining  for  the 
animal  the  name  of  Rib-faced  Deer. 

The  Indian  Muntjac,  or  Barking  Deer,  so  called  from  its 
peculiar  cry,  is  the  best  known  of  the  five  different  species. 
In  size  it  is  less  than  the  Roe  Deer,  being  but  two  feet 
in  height  and  weighing  only  about  twenty-eight  pounds. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  animals  of  its  race. 
Its  hair,  of  a  dark-reddish  fawn  colour,  is  close  and  shiny ; 
its  limbs  are  slender  and  agile ;  and  its  eyes  are  large  and 
brilliant.  The  antlers,  only  five  or  six  inches  in  length, 
consist  of  but  the  undivided  beam  and  a  brow  tine. 

The  Kakar,  as  the  animal  is  frequently  called,  is  a  hill- 
dweller,  rarely  being  seen  on  the  plains.  It  can  make  its 
way  at  a  great  speed  through  the  densest  jungle,  and,  owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  getting  anything  like  a  sure  aim,  hunters 
use  a  charge  of  shot  in  preference  to  a  bullet.  By  means  of 
rather  long  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw  the  bucks  frequently  gash 
pursuing  hounds  severely. 

There  are  numerous  other  Asiatic  Deer,  of  which  only 
briefest  mention  of  several  may  be  made.  The  Sika,  or 
Japanese  Deer  (Cervus  sika),  is  common  in  Japan  and 
Northern  China.  In  colour  it  is  a  beautiful  brilliant  chest- 


366  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

nut,  thickly  spotted  with  white.  When  in  velvet  the  antlers 
are  a  bright  chestnut  red  with  black  tips,  giving  the  bucks  a 
strikingly  handsome  appearance.  This  animal  has  been 
introduced  into  many  English  deer-parks.  The  males  are 
small  but  strong,  and  often  carry  off  the  hinds  of  the  Red 
Deer  in  face  of  the  bigger  red  bucks. 

The  Chinese  Water  Deer  (Hydropotes  inermis)  frequents 
the  beds  of  rushes  along  river  banks.  Even  the  bucks 
possess  no  antlers.  Strangely  enough,  John  Chinaman  does 
not  care  for  the  flesh  of  the  animal,  and  consequently 
it  exists  in  rather  large  numbers.  The  Water  Deer  is  an 
adept  at  concealment ;  in  the  park  at  Woburn  Abbey,  where 
the  Duke  of  Bedford  keeps  many  specimens  of  foreign  deer, 
it  is  often  difficult  to  discover  the  animal  even  in  a  grass 
paddock. 

The  Chinese  Elaphure,  or  David's  Deer  (Cervus  davi- 
dianus),  is  practically  only  found  in  the  Imperial  hunting 
park  at  Pekin,  where  M.  David,  a  French  naturalist,  first  saw 
it  from  over  the  wall  in  1865.  Four  years  later  a  pair  was 
obtained  for  the  Zoological  Gardens  in  Regent's  Park.  The 
antlers  of  the  Elaphure  are  unlike  those  of  any  other  Deer. 
The  beam  ascends  very  abruptly,  throwing  off  very  near  to 
the  base  a  back  tine  of  enormous  length.  The  Chinese  call 
it  the  Sze-poo-seang,  which  signifies  '  Like  none  of  the 
Four,'  i.e.,  the  animal  resembles  neither  the  horse,  cow, 
deer,  nor  goat. 


MUSK  DEEB  (Moschus  moschiferus). 
Coloured  Plate  XXV.  Fig.  i. 

The  Musk  Deer  of  Central  Asia,  and  the  Himalayan 
region  in  particular,  was  long  one  of  the  accredited  wonders 
of  the  animal  kingdom.  It  so  differs  in  various  particulars 
from  any  other  of  the  Deer,  that  some  naturalists  prefer  to 
view  it  as  forming  a  distinct  family  of  its  own.  The  absence 
of  antlers  in  both  sexes  is  not  wholly  a  distinctive  charac- 
teristic. Three  special  peculiarities  are  not  external.  The 
Musk  Deer  is  the  only  one  of  the  Cervine  family  that 
possesses  no  gall-bladder  to  the  liver,  which  is  so  common  a 


THE  MUSK   DEER  367 

feature  in  the  Bovine  family  ;  it  has  a  simpler  form  of  brain 
than  in  any  other  Deer ;  and  the  musk,  from  which  the 
animal  derives  its  name,  is  secreted  in  an  abdominal  pouch, 
technically  named  the  pod.  When  it  is  first  removed  from 
the  animal  the  odour  is  so  overpowering  that  the  dealers 
are  obliged  to  envelop  their  nostrils  in  cloths,  lest  bleeding 
at  the  nose  should  ensue.  The  musk  is  not  only  valuable 
for  perfumery  purposes,  but  it  also  possesses  useful 
medicinal  qualities. 

The  dentition  of  the  Musk  Deer  calls  for  notice,  in  that 
the  canine  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  are  so  greatly  developed 
that  they  remind  the 
observer  somewhat  of 
those  of  the  young  wal- 
rus, being  sometimes 
three  inches  in  length. 
At  one  time  it  was  be- 
lieved that  these  tusks 
were  intended  to  insure 
the  animal's  safety,  and  SKULL  OF  THE  MUSK  DEER. 

that  when  it  was  hunted 

and  could  not  escape  from  the  hounds  it  sprang  into  the 
boughs  of  the  nearest  tree,  hooked  its  tusks  upon  a  branch, 
and  hung  there  until  the  hounds  had  passed  by  and  lost 
the  scent.  With  increasing  knowledge  this  pretty  fiction 
became  entirely  exploded. 

The  feet  of  the  Musk  Deer  are  quite  distinctive,  the  hoofs 
being  widely  cleft,  while  the  large  lateral  hoofs  are  almost 
equal  to  claws.  The  animal  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  sure- 
footed as  the  chamois,  ascending  and  descending  the  most 
frightful  precipices  with  the  greatest  ease.  It  inhabits 
the  loftiest  mountain  ranges,  its  favourite  haunts  being  the 
pine  forests,  although  in  summer  it  goes  much  higher  than 
the  region  of  pines.  It  is  nocturnal  in  habit,  in  addition 
to  which  it  is  exceedingly  timid.  Little  wonder  that  before 
the  invention  of  long-range  rifles  the  capture  of  an  adult 
male  was  an  event  in  a  hunter's  life. 

Standing  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches  in  height,  the 
Musk  Deer  is  about  the  size  of  the  Roe  Deer,  but  it  is  much 
more  clumsily  built.  It  is  covered  with  long,  coarse  brittle 


368  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

hair,  varying  in  colour  from  a  rich  dark  brown  to  a  mixture 
of  brown  and  whitish  yellow. 

Though  it  is  a  watchful  and  timid  animal,  the  natives  of 
these  wild  regions  contrive  to  capture  the  Musk  Deer  in  a 
manner  at  once  easy  and  profitable.  On  the  ridges  which 
separate  the  valleys  frequented  by  the  animals  they  erect 
fences,  with  gaps  at  intervals,  in  which  traps  are  concealed 
in  the  ground.  Rather  than  jump  over  the  obstruction  the 
animals  elect  to  pass  through  the  gaps,  in  the  course  of 
which  they  tread  upon  a  bough  that  releases  a  noose  to 
entangle  the  feet.  At  intervals  the  trappers  collect  the 
snared  animals  and  reset  the  traps. 

'No  animal/  says  Captain  Kinloch,  ' seems  more  in- 
different to  cold,  from  which  it  is  protected  by  its  thick 
coat  of  hollow  hair,  which  forms  as  it  were  a  sort  of 
cushion,  which  acts  as  an  insulator,  and  enables  the  Deer 
to  lie  even  on  snow  without  much  loss  of  animal  heat.  It 
is  amazingly  active  and  surefooted,  bounding  along  without 
hesitation  over  the  steepest  and  most  dangerous  ground. 
Its  usual  food  seems  to  be  leaves,  but  the  natives  say  that 
it  will  eat  snakes.' 


Plate  XXVH. 


2.  Camel 


Chapter  XI 

ORDER  VI.— UNGULATA 

Sub-Order  4.—  ARTIODACTYLA  (continued) 

GROUP   IL—TRAGULINA    (CHEVROTAINS). 

GROUP    IIL—TYLOPADA    (CAMELS). 
GROUP    IV.—SUINA    (SWINE-LIKE   ANIMALS). 


Group  II.  Tragulina  :  The  Chevrotains — Kan- 
chil.  Group  III.  Tylopada:  General  descrip- 
tion—Arabian  Camel — Bactrian  Camel— Llama 
—  Alpaca  —  Guanaco  —  Vicuna.  Group  IV. 
Suina  :  Wild  Boar — Domestic  Swine — Baby- 
russa — Wart  Hog — Peccary — Hippopotamus. 


CHAPTER    XI 

Order  VI. — Ungulata 

Sub-Order  4.— ARTIODACTYLA  (continued) 

GROUP  II.—TRAGULINA. 

FAMILY  TRAGULID^E. 

THIS  group,  known  as  the  Chevrotains,  Deerlets,  or 
Mouse  Deer,  consists  of  diminutive,  graceful,  deer- 
like  animals,  possessing  certain  well-defined  characteristics 
that  well  separate  them  from  the  true  deer.  They  have 
no  antlers,  the  upper  jaw  is  furnished  with  long  canine 
tusks,  and  each  foot  has  four  well-developed  digits,  approxi- 
mating somewhat  to  those  of  the  pig.  The  family  really 
appears  to  form  a  link  between  the  deer  and  the  swine. 
There  are  half  a  dozen  species  of  Chevrotains,  the  Water 
Chevrotain  (Dorcatherium  aquaticum)  of  West  Africa  being 
the  only  one  that  is  found  outside  the  continent  of  Asia. 

KANCHIL  (Tragulus  pygmaus). 
Coloured  Plate  XXV.  Fig.  2. 

The  Kanchil,  or  Pigmy  Musk  Deer,  is  a  native  of  Java 
and  various  adjacent  islands.  It  is  a  very  small  animal, 
with  a  body  only  about  as  big  as  a  hare  or  rabbit.  Its 
legs  are  slender  and  but  little  thicker  than  a  blacklead 
pencil.  Little  over  a  foot  in  height  and  measuring  but 
eighteen  inches  in  length,  except  for  the  ten-inch  high 

371 


372 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


Royal,  or  Pigmy,  Antelope  (see  p.  336)  of  the  Guinea 
coast,  it  is  the  smallest  of  the  Ungulates.  The  colour  of  its 
rather  fine  hair  is  chiefly  greyish  above,  brightening  to  a 
reddish  tint  on  the  sides,  with  a  broad  dark  stripe  along 
the  back  of  the  neck,  and  a  band  running  up  the  chest. 
It  is  difficult  to  discover  the  timid  animal  in  grass  or 
jungle.  The  Kanchil  can  feign  death  with  a  cleverness 
second  only  to  the  opossum  itself.  Caught  in  a  noose 
or  other  trap,  the  animal  will  exhibit  not  the  faintest  sign  of 
life  until  it  is  released  from  the  snare  while  the  hunter  resets 
his  trap.  The  clever  animal-actor  often  seizes  the  oppor- 
tunity to  dart  away  into  the  jungle  before  an  effort  can  be 
made  to  defeat  its  purpose. 


GROUP  III.—TYLOPADA    (CAMELS   AND 
LLAMAS). 

Derived  from  two  Greek  words,  the  first  meaning  a 
knot  or  callus  and  the  second  a  foot,  'Tylopada'  thus 
signifies  feet  that  are  covered  with  hardened  skin  instead  of 
being  furnished  with  hoofs.  There  are  but  a  few  species 
in  this  group,  and  they  are  confined  to  the  deserts  of  Africa 
and  Asia  and  the  Andes  regions  of  South  America.  They 

are  hornless  animals.  Un- 
like other  Ruminants,  they 
possess  incisor  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw  and  canines  in 
both  jaws.  The  Camel  has 
six  upper  and  five  lower 
cheek  teeth  on  each  side ; 
the  Llama  has  only  five 
upper  ones  on  each  side. 

There  is  a  marked  differ- 
ence between  the  feet  of  the 
Camel  and  the  Llama.  In  the  former  the  two  toes  are 
elongated  and  furnished  with  soft  pads  like  cushions, 
which  spread  out  and  enable  the  animal  to  tread  the  loose 
sand  without  sinking  or  slipping.  In  the  Llama  the  two 
toes  still  retain  their  length,  but  the  pads  are  only  slightly 
developed,  giving  place  to  two  sharp  and  hard  little  hoofs 


FOOT  OF  THE  CAMEL. 


THE  CAMEL 


373 


that  are  of  great  service  in  assisting  their  owner  to  make 
good  progress  over  rocky  ground. 

In  the  stomach  of  the  animals  of  this  group  there  are 
only  three  compartments,  the  first  and  second  (paunch  and 
reticulum)  of  which  are  fitted  with  a  collection  of  cells  for 
storage  of  as  much  as  a  gallon  and  a  half  of  water,  upon 
which  the  animal  can  draw  at  will.  Another  common 
feature  of  the  Tylopada  group  rests  in  the  fact  that  the 
bones  of  the  animals  are  quite  ivory-like  in  character. 


FAMILY   CAMELIDj®. 

ARABIAN  CAMEL  (Camelus  dromedarius). 

Plate  XXXIX.  Fig.  2. 

The  One-Humped  Camel  is  the  true  Arabian  species,  a 
large,  ungainly-looking  animal,  nearly  seven  feet  long  and 
standing  seven  feet  high  at  the  shoulder,  or 
about  nine  feet  to  the  top  of  the  head.  Apart 
from  the  hump,  the  back  of  the  animal  is  long 
and  arched,  and  the  head  is  set  on  a  long 
curved  neck.  In  colour  the  coat  of  soft,  woolly 
hair  is  generally  reddish  grey,  though  darker 
and  even  quite  black  animals  are  not  unknown. 
Pads  of  hard  skin  take  the  place  of  hair  on 
the  chest  and  leg  joints,  which  points  would 
otherwise  suffer  when  the  Camel  kneels  or 
lies  down. 

The  ears  of  the  animal  are  small  and  rounded, 
and  the  eyes  are  protected  by  large  eyelids  and 
eyebrows ;  the  large  nostrils  can  be  closed  at 
will.  The  eyes  and  nose  are  thus  capable  of 
being  protected  during  the  terrible  sandstorms 
that  are  common  in  the  desert.  The  lips  are 
mobile,  and  the  upper  one  is  cleft  like  that  of 
the  hare,  the  better  to  take  hold  of  food  to  draw 
it  into  the  mouth.  The  Camel  is  a  ruminant, 
but  nevertheless  it  has  incisor  teeth  in  the  front  of  the 
upper  jaw,  but  in  the  adults  only  a  single  pair  remains. 


BONES  OF 
FORE  FOOT 

OF 
THE  CAMEL. 


374 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


The  legs  of  the  Camel  are  long  and  slender,  notwith- 
standing which  their  looseness  gives  them  a  flabby  and 
rather  straggling  appearance.  Reference  has  already  been 
made  to  the  cushioned  feet  of  the  animal,  which  specially 
adapt  it  for  traversing  sandy  deserts.  It  is  often  stated  that 
the  Camel  is  quite  unfitted  for  walking  on  hilly  or  stony 
ground  ;  but  the  Camels  of  Sinai  can  pick  their  way  with 
remarkable  celerity  amongst  boulders  and  in  rocky  places 
that  would  often  puzzle  a  mountain  pony. 

On  wet  and  slippery  roads  the  Camel  is  simply  helpless, 
and  is  very  apt  to  dislocate  its  hind  legs.  They  slide 
asunder  on  a  treacherous  surface,  and  the  animal  is  unable 
to  bring  them  back  ;  and  the  result  is  that  the  weight  of  the 

body,  to  say  nothing  of 

am. 


a  burden,  forces  the 
bones  out  of  their 
sockets,  and  nothing 
can  be  done  with  the 
unfortunate  creature 
but  destroy  it. 

The  qualities  which 
make  the  Camel  in- 
valuable in  desert 
regions  are  its  powers 
as  a  pack  animal  and 
of  subsisting  with  little 
food  and  absolutely  no 

drink  for  comparatively  long  periods.  It  can  dispense 
with  water  without  discomfort  for  several  days,  but  in 
face  of  dire  necessity  it  can  exist  as  long  as  ten  days, 
travelling  during  the  whole  of  that  period  and  carrying  a 
fairly  heavy  load.  It  sometimes  happens  that  when  the 
water  contained  in  the  skin  bags  of  the  travellers  is  ex- 
hausted, a  Camel  is  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  the  liquid 
which  remains  unconsumed  in  the  stomach. 

Often  the  Camel  saves  the  caravan  from  destruction  by 
the  exercise  of  its  faculty  of  scenting  water  at  a  great 
distance,  bending  its  course  directly  towards  it,  and  even 
going  to  the  length  of  breaking  its  halter  if  the  driver  fail  to 
understand  the  animal's  instinctive  knowledge. 


WATER  CELLS  OF  THE  STOMACH   OF  THE 
CAMEL. 


PLATE  XXXIX. 


i.     OKAPI. 

(Sec  page  341) 


2.     DROMEDARY. 

(Photo  IP.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


THE  CAMEL  375 

The  hump  or  '  bunch '  on  the  back  was  at  one  time 
popularly  supposed  to  be  the  water  reservoir,  whereas 
it  is  composed  of  fatty  cells  which  form  a  reserve  of  food. 
There  is  something  analogous  to  this  in  the  hibernating 
animals,  which  are  always  particularly  fat  when  they 
retire,  and  extremely  lean  when  they  make  their  reappear- 
ance after  their  long  sleep.  In  the  case  of  the  Camel  the 
store  of  fat  is  restricted  to  the  hump,  which  is  fat  and  plump 
when  the  animal  is  well  fed  and  lightly  worked,  shrinking 
almost  to  nothing  in  a  trying  journey  during  which  food  is 
scarce. 

In  Arabia  there  is  at  least  a  score  of  different  breeds, 
but  for  all  practical  purposes  they  are  either  baggage  animals 
or  fast  riding  Camels,  which  last  are  usually  known  as 
Dromedaries.  Small  animals  are  loaded  up  to  eight  hun- 
dred pounds  and  large  ones  up  to  half  a  ton,  with  which 
they  will  move  along  at  the  rate  of  two  and  a  half  or  three 
miles  an  hour.  A  good  Dromedary,  such  as  the  swift  breed, 
the  Heirie,  will  travel  eight  miles  an  hour  and  keep  up  that 
pace  for  a  long  time  ;  seventy  or  eighty  miles  a  day  will 
be  maintained  for  successive  days,  totalling  in  some  cases 
a  distance  of  six  hundred  and  thirty  miles  in  five  days. 
In  their  figurative  language  the  Arabs  describe  the 
capabilities  of  their  fast  Camel  couriers  thus :  '  When 
thou  shalt  meet  a  heirie  and  say  to  the  rider,  Salem  alic 
(Peace  be  between  us),  ere  he  shall  have  answered  thee, 
Alic  salem  (There  is  peace  between  us),  he  will  be  far  off 
and  nearly  out  of  sight,  for  his  swiftness  is  like  the 
wind.' 

The  Arabian  Camel  is  found  not  only  in  Arabia  but 
Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  India;  and  it 
is  common  in  Egypt  and  Northern  Africa  generally.  It  has 
been  introduced  among  other  places  into  the  South  of 
Europe,  United  States,  and  Australia.  In  the  New  World 
it  was  not  a  success,  and  the  few  animals  in  Italy  are  very 
inferior  to  those  on  the  other  side  of  the  Mediterranean  ; 
but  in  Australia  the  Camel  has  proved  invaluable  in  the 
desert  regions,  and  the  thorough  exploration  of  the  interior 
would  have  been  practically  impossible  without  it. 

Though  the  Camel  is  used  in  harness  as  a  draught  animal 


376  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

and  in  agricultural  labour  such  as  ploughing  and  harrow- 
ing, it  is  as  a  beast  of  burden  that  it  renders  inestimable 
service.  The  internal  trade  of  desert  countries  would  be 
impossible  without  this  '  ship  of  the  desert.'  In  North 
Africa,  for  example,  caravans  of  Camels,  sometimes  to  the 
number  of  a  thousand,  regularly  cross  the  terrible  ocean  of 
sand,  the  great  Sahara,  to  and  from  the  coast  regions ;  or 
traverse  the  burning  wastes  of  Arabia  just  as  at  the  time 
when  Joseph  was  sold  to  '  a  company  of  Ishmaelites  from 
Gilead  with  their  camels,  bearing  spicery  and  balm  and 
myrrh,  going  to  carry  it  down  into  Egypt.'  Caravan  Camels 
are  those  of  the  largest  kind.  With  only  a  single  feed  of 
beans  during  the  day,  or  a  handful  of  dates  or  small  balls 
of  barley  meal,  with  perhaps  occasionally  the  dry  and  thorny 
plants  found  at  some  points  in  the  desert  routes,  the  animal 
forges  along  without  exhaustion  or  even  the  desire  for 
better  fare. 

Nor  is  the  Camel  of  less  importance  to  the  wandering 
Arab  than  he  is  to  the  merchant.  He  loads  it  with  his 
tents,  his  wealth,  and  his  family,  and  traverses  the  ever- 
moving  sands  from  one  oasis  to  another.  An  astonishing 
load  can  be  piled  upon  a  Camel — bales  on  the  back, 
panniers  at  the  sides,  or  children  in  a  bag  on  one  side, 
a  young  camel  in  a  bag  or  net  on  the  other.  A  mixed 
collection  of  merchandise,  waterskins,  and  cooking  utensils, 
all  are  carried  with  submissive  docility. 

Notwithstanding  its  extreme  usefulness  the  Camel  is  one 
of  the  least  intelligent  of  animals.  Unlike  most  mammals, 
it  has  no  instinctive  notion  of  swimming  ;  it  has  the  greatest 
possible  aversion  to  water ;  and  when  fording  a  river  under 
compulsion,  should  it  happen  to  lose  its  footing,  it  will 
simply  roll  over  and  allow  itself  to  drown.  It  is,  too,  quite 
devoid  of  sympathy,  and  never  comes  to  an  understanding 
with  its  master,  such  as  a  dog  or  a  horse  naturally  acquires. 
Patience  it  may  possess,  but  it  is  the  patience  of  stupidity, 
and  there  is  no  knowing  when  the  animal  will  not  change 
it  for  an  unmovable  obstinacy  and  an  exhibition  of  a  most 
vicious  temper,  to  which  the  bitten  arm  or  shoulder  of  a 
driver  often  bears  painful  testimony.  Its  revengeful  dis- 
position is  always  a  positive  danger,  and  in  this  respect  it 


THE  CAMEL  377 

perhaps  shows  intelligence  in  an  undesirable  direction,  as 
evidenced  in  the  following  incident : — 

A  Camel,  working  in  an  oil-mill,  was  beaten  by  the 
driver.  For  several  months  the  animal  gave  no  sign  that  it 
bore  ill-will  for  the  punishment.  One  moonlight  night  the 
man,  while  sleeping  in  an  unaccustomed  spot,  awoke  in 
time  to  perceive  the  animal  steal  softly  to  a  heap  of  clothes 
that  bore  some  resemblance  to  his  own  sleeping  figure. 
With  the  greatest  fury  the  Camel  threw  itself  upon  them, 
rolling  with  all  its  weight  and  tearing  them  to  rags  with  its 
teeth.  When  it  had  completed  its  work  of  destruction  the 
driver  spoke  to  the  animal,  and  such  was  its  chagrin  at  the 
failure  of  its  purpose  that,  in  a  fit  of  uncontrollable  rage,  it 
dashed  its  head  against  the  wall  and  died  on  the  spot. 

Riding  a  Camel  is  an  unpleasant  and  even  painful  process 
for  a  beginner.  The  action  of  the  animal  as  it  first  gains 
its  feet  is  singularly  discomposing.  The  saddle  has  two 
upright  wooden  horns,  between  which  the  rider  sits.  When 
he  is  seated  and  the  Camel  released,  the  animal  suddenly 
plunges  upwards  with  its  forequarters,  so  as  to  place  its  feet 
on  the  ground.  Almost  before  the  rider  has  recovered  from 
the  shock,  the  hindquarters  are  elevated  with  similar  quick- 
ness, so  that  a  novice  has  all  the  breath  knocked  out  of  him 
by  alternate  contact  with  the  two  horns.  And  then  comes 
the  monotonous  back-breaking  jolt  as  the  Camel  swings 
along  on  the  two  legs  of  one  side  at  a  time,  not  adding 
to  the  comfort  of  the  inexperienced  rider  by  its  habit  of 
snatching  at  intervals  at  any  tempting  thorn  or  green 
branch  in  its  path.  The  Camel  is  not  bitted,  but  guided 
by  a  string  attached  to  a  noose  fitted  tightly  round  the  nose. 
To  say  it  is  guided  is  a  mere  figure  of  speech,  for  it  is 
difficult  to  direct  the  animal  in  any  way  except  that  which 
it  proposes  to  follow. 

The  Camel  is  to  the  Arab  what  the  reindeer  is  to  the 
Eskimo.  Not  only  does  he  use  it  for  burden,  but  he  feeds 
almost  wholly  on  the  thick,  rich  milk,  mixed  with  meal ;  the 
tents  in  which  he  lives,  and  the  great  mantle,  or  burnous, 
which  he  wears— such  as  was  worn  by  Elijah,  and  be- 
queathed to  Elisha — are  made  of  the  Camel's  hair,  of  which 
it  is  despoiled  annually.  The  skin  is  valuable  for  many 


378  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

purposes ;  of  it  are  made  tents,  shields,  harness,  saddles, 
trunks,  &c. 

Of  the  real  history  of  the  Camel  little  is  known.  Whether 
Asiatic  or  African,  there  is  no  record  of  a  Camel  that  was 
not  the  property  and  the  servant  of  man  from  the  time 
when  Abraham  possessed  oxen,  asses,  and  Camels  (Gen. 
xii.  16),  or  when  the  sons  of  Reuben  took  from  the  Hagar- 
ites  when  "they  were  delivered  unto  their  hands,  of  their 
Camels  fifty  thousand."  The  Beni  Sakkar  Arabs,  who 
now  dwell  in  the  Hagarites'  country,  are  said  to  possess  a 
hundred  thousand  Camels ;  and  the  sheikh  of  the  Anazeh, 
one  of  the  foremost  Bedouin  tribes,  can  put  into  the  field 
ten  thousand  horsemen  and  ninety  thousand  Camel-drivers. 


BACTRIAN   CAMEL  (Camelus  bactrianus). 
Coloured  Plate  XXVII.  Fig.  2. 

The  Bactrian  Camel,  inhabiting  the  desert  regions  of 
Central  Asia,  is  recognised  at  once  by  its  double  hump.  It 
is  a  heavier  animal,  and  its  legs  are  shorter  and  its  hair 
longer  than  in  the  foregoing  species.  The  legs  in  particular 
render  it  better  fitted  for  traversing  rocky  regions  than  its 
Arabian  relative.  In  habits  and  disposition  the  Bactrian 
Camel  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Arabia,  and  to  the  nomads 
of  Central  Asia  it  is  every  whit  as  important  from  an 
economic  point  of  view.  The  Persians  use  it  for  their  cele- 
brated Camel  artillery,  a  light  swivel-gun  being  mounted 
on  the  saddle  and  worked  by  the  rider. 

In  the  Gobi  Desert  are  wild  Camels  that  are  supposed  to 
be  the  descendants  of  domesticated  animals  which  have 
escaped  from  captivity.  Over  two  centuries  ago  a  rather 
populous  district,  Taka  Makun  by  name,  was  swept  by 
a  devastating  sandstorm.  It  is  said  that  not  a  single  human 
being  escaped,  but  probably  some  of  the  Camels  survived, 
and  it  is  from  these  animals  that  the  present  wild  ones  took 
their  rise.  They  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  capture,  for  in 
the  deep,  loose  sand  of  these  regions  horses  are  quite  help- 
less in  the  chase. 


NEW  WORLD  CAMELS  379 

LLAMA  (Lama  glamd]. 
Coloured  Plate  XXVII.  Fig.  i. 

Of  the  genus  Llama  there  are  four  species,  two  wild 
and  two  domesticated,  but  strictly  speaking  the  title  is 
confined  to  the  latter.  Though  they  are  smaller  in  size, 
lighter  in  build,  and  without  the  hump  of  the  Camels 
of  the  Old  World,  they  are  all  formed  on  much  the  same 
model,  yet  at  the  same  time  fitted  for  a  very  different  life. 
Instead  of  being  natives  of  flat  and  sandy  ground,  they  are 
inhabitants  of  the  lofty  and  snow-clad  mountains  of  Peru 
and  Chili,  traversing  them  with  an  agility  little  inferior  to  that 
of  the  chamois  by  means  of  the  two 
sharp,  hard  hoofs  that  take  the  place 
of  the  small  nails  which  are  quite 
sufficient  for  the  Camel. 

The  ancient  Peruvians  domesticated 
the  wild  Guanaco,  from  which  in  the 
course  of  time  they  bred  two  distinct 
varieties,  viz.,  the  true  Llama,  as  figured 
on  the  Plate,  which  was  used  as  a  beast 
of  burden,  and  the  smaller  Alpaca, 
domesticated  in  a  less  degree  mainly 
for  the  sake  of  its  wool.  Both  animals  FOOT  OF  THE  LLAMA. 
vary  considerably  in  colour,  being 
white,  or  white  marked  with  brown  or  black,  and  sometimes 
completely  brown  or  black. 

Standing  from  three  to  four  feet  in  height,  and  very  much 
resembling  a  long-necked  sheep,  the  *  American  Camel' 
can  carry  a  load  of  a  hundred  pounds  at  a  rate  of  twelve 
miles  a  day  ;  and  on  a  journey  it  can  manage  on  very  little 
food  and  travel  for  four  or  five  days  without  water. 

The  Spaniards,  in  their  conquest  and  occupation  of  South 
America,  made  much  use  of  the  Llama  as  a  pack  animal, 
for  in  those  days  there  were  no  horses  or  asses  in  the  New 
World.  Gregory  Bolivar  said  that  in  his  day  there  were 
three  hundred  thousand  Llamas  carrying  silver  ingots  from 
the  Potosi  mines  alone  to  the  coast,  and  that  annually 
several  millions  of  the  animals  were  used  for  food.  Only 


38o  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

the  male  Llamas  were  pack  animals,  the  females  being  kept 
for  the  sake  of  their  milk  and  flesh.  A  long  file  of  Llamas 
would  traverse  the  broken  mountain  steeps,  the  highest 
passes,  and  narrow  ledges  of  precipitous  rocks  with  remark- 
able surefootedness. 

In  disposition  the  Llama  is  much  like  the  Camel.  It  will 
only  go  at  its  own  speed,  and  will  frequently  sulk  and  lie 
down  if  it  consider  its  load  is  too  heavy.  Rather  a  remarkable 
characteristic  of  the  Llama  family  is  that  of  spitting  in  the 
faces  of  persons  with  whom  an  animal  is  annoyed.  If  a 


STOMACH   OF  THE   LLAMA. 
a.  b.  Water  Cells. 


man  is  riding  one  of  the  animals  and  the  Llama  feels  tired, 
it  turns  its  head  round  and  discharges  a  mouthful  of 
offensive  saliva  into  the  rider's  face.  Visitors  to  zoological 
gardens  have  often  experienced  unpleasant  proof  of  this 
objectionable  habit. 

ALPACA  (Lama  pacos). 

The  covering  of  the  Alpaca,  more  often  brown  or  black 
than  in  the  Llama,  differs  from  that  of  the  latter  very  much 
as  does  the  wool  of  the  sheep  from  the  hair  of  the  goat. 


THE  GUANACO  381 

Except  for  its  longer  neck,  which  it  carries  very  erect,  the 
animal  is  more  sheep-like  than  the  Llama.  The  Alpacas 
are  pastured  on  the  high  mountain  tablelands  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  being  brought  down  into  the 
valleys  only  at  the  shearing  season.  Alpaca  wool,  which  is 
yellowish  brown,  or  grey,  or  white,  or  black,  was  first  used  by 
the  natives  for  making  tent  covers  and  similar  purposes.  It 
was  also  made  into  coarse  sacks  for  the  transmission  of  goods. 
When  emptied,  these  sacks  were  destroyed  as  useless.  But 
the  late  Sir  Titus  Salt,  when  quite  a  young  man,  invented  a 
set  of  machinery  which  could  deal  with  the  peculiar  fibre 
of  the  wool,  bought  for  a  trifle  all  the  old  bags  that  he  could 
procure,  and  set  up  the  machinery  that  gave  rise  to  the  great 
factory  of  Saltaire  in  Yorkshire. 

The  Alpaca  is  one  of  the  very  few  animals  which  the 
white  man  has  not  transferred  with  success  from  its  native 
home.  A  large  herd  that  was  imported  into  England  led  to 
no  useful  result,  and  in  different  parts  of  Europe  similar 
attempts  ended  in  failure.  Australia  appeared  to  be  the 
likeliest  region  to  suit  the  animal ;  but  as  a  herd  of  three 
hundred  dwindled  down  to  a  dozen  in  about  five  years,  it 
seems  to  point  out  that  the  Alpaca  is  not  likely  to  be  added 
to  the  many  more  or  less  cosmopolitan  animals  of  the 
world. 

GUANACO  (Lama  guanacus). 

The  Guanaco,  or  Huanaco,  the  ancestor  of  the  present- 
day  Llama,  extends  throughout  the  Andes  region  from  the 
Equator  to  Cape  Horn.  The  coat,  rough  and  short,  is 
usually  brown  in  colour.  Though  exceedingly  wild  and 
wary,  the  animal  has  little  idea  of  defending  itself,  but 
the  males  fight  furiously  among  themselves. 

The  animal  is  said  to  retire  to  some  secluded  place  when 
it  is  about  to  die  ;  and  Darwin  found  certain  spots  near  the 
Santa  Cruz  river  that  were  white  with  bones.  This  strange 
habit  has  given  rise  to  considerable  discussion  among 
naturalists.  The  most  probably  correct  explanation  is,  that 
long  ages  ago  the  Guanaco  in  the  severe  weather  came 
down  from  the  heights  to  the  wooded  valleys  for  warmth. 
An  animal  approaching  its  end  would  feel  cold  from  its 


382  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

own  decreasing  vitality,   and   hence   it  would  seek   cover 
under  the  bushes  where  its  remains  have  been  found. 


VICUNA  (Lama  vicunia). 
Plate  XL.  Fig.  i. 

The  Vicuna,  about  two  and  a  half  feet  high,  is  smaller 
and  of  lighter  build  than  the  Guanaco,  and  its  habitat  is 
more  restricted,  being  chiefly  in  the  region  of  which  Peru  is 
the  centre.  It  is  generally  found  at  greater  and  much 
colder  heights  than  the  foregoing  member  of  the  Llama 
family.  Its  coat  is  more  or  less  light  brown,  with  white 
underwool. 

The  Indians  hunt  the  Vicuna  for  its  flesh  which  is 
excellent,  and  its  wool,  which  is  of  remarkably  fine  quality. 
The  weapon  employed  is  the  bolas  (see  p.  129),  which  is 
whirled  round  the  hunter's  head  and  then  released,  to  go 
with  unerring  aim  at  the  flying  animal,  and  entangle  its 
feet.  In  olden  times  as  many  as  twenty  thousand  men 
would  engage  in  a  grand  drive  over  an  area  of  twenty  square 
miles,  when  the  bag  would  include  not  only  hundreds  of 
Vicunas  and  Guanacos,  but  deer,  bears,  pumas,  and  other 
animals. 

At  one  time  it  was  made  an  offence  to  kill  the  Vicuna ; 
hunters  were  to  shear  it,  and  then  set  it  at  liberty.  Owing 
to  the  wildness  of  the  creature  this  was  found  impracticable, 
with  the  result  that  continual  hunting  has  greatly  reduced 
the  number  of  the  animals  in  this  species. 


GROUP  IV.—SUINA. 

All  the  members  of  this  group  are  non-ruminant,  pig- 
like  animals,  generally  with  four  toes  on  each  foot,  although 
there  are  exceptions  in  which  the  hind  feet  possess  but  three. 
The  teeth  consist  of  two  or  three  incisors,  one  canine,  and 
five  or  six  molars  on  each  side  of  the  jaw.  Though  at  least 
one  family  is  particularly  numerous  as  to  individuals,  the 
group  includes  but  three  existing  types. 


PLATE  XL. 


mam 


i.    VICUNA.  2.     WART    HOG. 

(Sec  page  389) 

(Photos  W.  S.  Ber ridge,  F2.S.) 


THE  SWINE  FAMILY  383 

FAMILY   SUID^E   (SWINE). 

All  the  Swine  have  elongated  snouts  with  the  nostrils  at 
the  end  ;  the  ears  are  often  large  and  flapping  ;  the  eyes 
are  small ;  and  the  bodies  are  often  nearly  naked,  or  with  a 
sparse  covering  of  bristly  hair.  Their  favourite  location  is 
in  damp,  swampy  regions.  The  upper  canine  teeth  of  the 
male  in  particular  are  long  and  flattened,  slightly  curved, 
and  so  sharpened  that  they  cut  like  knives  when  used  as 
weapons.  The  feet  are  narrow,  with  four  toes  on  each.  In 
a  wild  state  Swine  are  mostly  herbivorous,  but  will  eat  flesh 
when  the  opportunity  offers.  The  illustrations  show  that 
Swine,  which  do  not  chew  the  cud,  yet  divide  the  hoof. 

WILD   BOAR  (Sus  scro/a). 
Coloured  Plate  XXVIII.  Fig.  i. 

The  Wild  Boar,  the  only  European  specimen  of  the 
family,  was  once  exceedingly  abundant  in  Central  and 
Southern  Europe,  and  it  is  still  common  in  the  more 
remote,  well-wooded  regions,  such  as  the  Black  Forest,  &c. 
Practically  the  same  animal  extended  into  Western  and 
Central  Asia  as  well  as  into  the  North  of  Africa.  It 
formerly  roamed  in  the  forests  of  Britain,  and  was  another 
of  the  animals  that  William  I.  protected  and  preserved 
with  such  severity.  In  later  times  the  animal  died  out; 
Charles  I.  imported  fresh  animals  into  the  New  Forest, 
but  during  the  Civil  War  they  were  all  destroyed. 

The  shape  of  the  Swine's  head  shows  that  it  is  intended 
to  force  its  way  through  forest  undergrowth,  the  wedge-like 
snout  assisting  to  make  a  passage  to  allow  the  body  to 
follow  easily.  The  snout  is  also  used  for  grubbing  up 
ground  in  search  of  food ;  and  as  the  animal  possesses 
an  acute  sense  of  smell,  nothing  escapes  it  as  it  turns  up 
the  soil.  Wild  Swine  are  chiefly  vegetarians,  but,  urged 
by  a  voracious  appetite,  they  eat  insects  and  reptiles,  even 
the  fangs  of  the  viper  having  no  terrors  for  them.  In 
North  America  the  domesticated  Pig  will  kill  and  greedily 
devour  the  dreaded  rattlesnake,  the  poisonous  stings 


3*4 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


taking  no  effect  on  the  hard  hide  and  its  protecting  layer 
of  fat. 

Though  the  Wild  Boar  differs  considerably  in  appearance 
in  various  regions,  the  European  specimen  will  well  serve 
for  the  others.  Its  colour  is  a  dusky  brown,  or  grey  with 
a  tendency  to  black.  The  elongated  head  is  set  on  a  short 
neck  that  rises  out  of  a  thick  and  muscular  body.  It  is 
variable  in  size,  but  is  usually  about  four  feet  long  and  three 
feet  in  height.  The  canine  teeth  in  the  males  are  long  and 
powerful  and  project  beyond  the  upper  lip.  The  female 
is  less  in  size  and  the  tusks  are  not  nearly  so  large.  The 
young  ones  are  white  and  generally  marked  with  yellow 
longitudinal  stripes. 

The  Indian  Wild  Boar  (Sus  cristatus)  is  larger  than  the 

European  animal  and 
is  one  of  the  most 
formidable  beasts 
that  can  be  met  in  the 
chase.  '  Pig-sticking ' 
is  a  favourite  sport  in 
India,  surrounded 
by  all  the  elements  of 
danger,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  natural 
pugnacity  of  the 

animal,  but  the  added  difficulty  of  making  progress  in  the 
jungle  where  it  makes  its  home.  It  is  not  much  less  active 
than  a  cat,  and  its  average  weight  of  three  hundred  pounds 
enforces  the  necessity  of  care  in  approaching  it.  When  it 
meets  an  enemy,  it  plunges  forward  and  with  a  wriggling 
movement  of  its  head  inflicts  two  deep  cuts,  one  to  the 
right  and  the  other  to  the  left. 

The  old  Boars  are  generally  solitary,  but  the  females  and 
young  are  found  in  parties  of  ten  or  twelve  up  to  as  many 
as  a  score.  It  is  the  male  that  is  particularly  dangerous,  for 
the  lower  tusks  are  sometimes  a  foot  in  length  and  quite 
capable  of  ripping  up  a  horse.  Bruce  relates  being  requested 
by  some  natives  to  rid  a  district  of  Wild  Boars  that  had 
frequently  ravaged  their  crops.  '  Amongst  us  all  we  killed 
five  boars,  all  large  ones,  in  the  space  of  about  two  hours, 


TEETH  OF  THE  WILD  BOAR. 


Plate  XXVIE. 


1.  Wild  Boar 


3.  Hippopotamus 


THE  WILD  BOAR  385 

one  of  which  measured  six  feet  nine  inches ;  and  though 
he  ran  at  an  amazing  speed  near  two  miles,  so  as  to  be  with 
difficulty  overtaken  by  the  horse,  and  was  struck  through 
and  through  with  two  heavy  lances  loaded  at  the  end  with 
iron,  no  person  dared  come  near  him  on  foot,  and  he 
defended  himself  above  half  an  hour,  till,  having  no  other 
arms  left,  I  shot  him  with  a  horse-pistol/ 

Captain  Shakespeare  describes  a  hunt  in  which  a  gaunt 
animal  made  an  amazing  fight  for  its  life.  It  was  speared 
in  its  withers,  but  wrested  the  weapon  out  of  the  officer's 
hand,  snapping  the  shaft  in  two  as  it  darted  into  the  jungle 
after  a  fierce  run  of  seventy  yards.  In  reaching  cover  the 
Boar  ran  under  the  horse  of  a  shikarry,  lifting  up  the  animal 
and  causing  its  rider  to  be  thrown  to  the  ground.  When 
Captain  Shakespeare,  leaving  his  horse  because  of  the 
undergrowth,  came  up  with  the  animal,  three  dogs  were 
holding  it  at  bay.  The  Boar,  perceiving  his  approach, 
charged  down  upon  him,  receiving  a  bullet  in  the  neck 
from  a  distance  of  only  fifteen  yards.  This  failed  to  stop 
its  career,  as  did  a  second  shot  that  broke  its  under  jaw- 
bone. The  next  instant  the  Captain  was  knocked  com- 
pletely over,  the  Boar  wounding  him  in  the  left  arm  as  it 
ran  over  him,  and  almost  in  the  same  instant  another  native 
was  hurled  to  the  ground  as  the  infuriated  animal  again 
took  flight.  A  third  shot  pierced  the  creature's  brain,  and 
it  fell  dead  without  a  groan. 

Sir  Samuel  Baker  in  Ceylon  often  hunted  the  Boar  on 
foot  with  dogs  and  armed  only  with  a  hunting-knife,  with 
which  to  meet  the  animal  at  close  quarters.  He  says  it 
abounds  in  the  low  country  in  astonishing  numbers,  where 
it  is  a  useful  scavenger  in  clearing  up  the  carcasses  of  dead 
animals.  The  natives  prize  the  flesh  of  the  Wild  Boar,  but  the 
Englishman  never  fancied  it  after  seeing  the  animals  gorging 
themselves  upon  a  putrid  elephant.  Ceylon  Boars  often 
scale  at  least  four  hundredweights,  though  Sir  Samuel  Baker 
reports  having  sighted  one  that  must  have  weighed  double. 

The  Wild  Boars  of  other  regions  such  as  East  India 
islands,  Japan,  Northern  Africa,  &c.,  are  too  much  alike  in 
appearance  and  habit  to  render  description  useful  or 
specially  interesting. 

26 


$86 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


DOMESTIC    SWINE  (Sus  scrofa). 
Coloured  Plate  XVIII.  Fig.  2. 

The  true  Swine  accommodates  itself  to  circumstances, 
and  there  are  few  parts  of  the  world  into  which  man 
has  not  introduced  it.  The  Jews  regarded  the  animal  as 
the  most  unclean  of  all  beasts,  and,  much  as  the  Moha- 
metans  hate  the  Jews,  they  were  in  hearty  accord  in  their 
detestation  of  the  Swine.  To  our  minds  the  chief  idea  in 
the  Parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son  is  that  of  the  discomfort 
and  hunger  of  the  wandering  spendthrift ; 
but  to  the  Jews  it  conveyed  unspeakable 
degradation  in  keeping  Swine  belonging  to 
another  man ;  it  indicated  the  most  abject 
humiliation,  for  a  Swine-keeper  was  abhorred 
as  much  as  a  leper.  In  the  Scriptures  the 
mention  of  the  animal  is  restricted  to  the 
domesticated  species,  except  in  one  instance, 
in  Psalm  Ixxx.  13 — 'The  boar  out  of  the 
wood  doth  waste  it,  and  the  wild  beast  of 
the  field  doth  devour  it.' 

In  all  probability  the  Common,  or 
Domestic,  Swine  all  the  world  over  are  the 
descendants  of  either  the  European  wild 
species  or  its  relatives  of  India ;  but  the 
various  breeds  have  been  crossed  and 
intercrossed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  baffle 
inquiry. 

Some  of  the  results  of  domestication  are  very  apparent, 
notably  in  the  bodily  form  of  various  breeds.  The  Irish 
Greyhound  Pig,  as  implied  by  its  name,  is  a  long-legged, 
lank-bodied,  high-withered,  narrow-headed  animal ;  while 
the  Harrison  Pig  has  short  legs  supporting  a  huge  cylin- 
drical trunk,  the  belly  of  which  nearly  touches  the  ground. 
The  Berkshire  Pig,  one  of  our  most  valuable  breeds,  is 
inferior  in  point  of  size,  and  is  a  much  more  shapely  and 
alert-looking  animal  than  many  others,  which  are  just  more 
or  less  cylindrical  masses  of  flesh  and  fat.  The  Japanese 
Masked  Pig  has  'an  extraordinary  appearance,  from  its 


BONES  OF  THE 
FOOT  OF  THE  PIG. 


THE  DOMESTIC  SWINE  387 

short  head,  broad  forehead  and  nose,  great  fleshy  ears,  and 
deeply  furrowed  skin.  Not  only  is  the  face  furrowed,  but 
thick  folds  of  skin,  which  are  harder  than  the  other  parts, 
almost  like  the  plates  on  the  Indian  rhinoceros,  hang  about 
the  shoulders  and  hindquarters/  The  best  Chinese  breed, 
small-bodied  and  short-eared,  has  been  largely  used  to 
improve  the  stock  of  European  breeders.  It  is  impossible 
to  attempt  to  particularise  more  of  the  different  breeds,  each 
of  which  possesses  some  good  point  either  in  its  size  or 
the  quality  of  the  meat. 

The  Domestic  Swine  of  the  United  Kingdom  are  chiefly 
pen-reared  animals  that  only  in  autumn  are  turned  loose  in 
the  woods  to  feast  on  acorns,  walnuts,  beech-mast,  &c. ; 
but  in  many  countries  they  are  at  best  half-tamed  creatures 
which  are  allowed  to  roam  over  vast  expanses  of  wild  country. 
In  many  cases  the  animals  escape  and  revert  to  a  wild  state, 
and  in  course  of  time  work  no  small  havoc  in  cultivated 
districts,  often  necessitating  their  extermination  by  settlers 
and  colonists.  This  was  the  case  with  the  Bush  Pigs  of 
South  Africa,  and  the  same  thing  has  occurred  in  New 
Zealand  and  other  regions  where  domesticated  animals 
have  been  able  to  avoid  the  control  of  their  owners. 

It  is  remarkable  how  the  importance  of  Pig  rearing  varies 
in  different  stock-raising  countries.  In  the  British  Isles 
there  are,  roughly,  four  million  Pigs  to  thirty  million  sheep 
and  eleven  million  cattle.  Australasia  has  but  one  million 
Pigs  to  a  hundred  million  sheep.  The  Argentine  possesses 
only  about  three-quarters  of  a  million  Swine  to  seventy-four 
million  sheep  and  twenty-one  million  cattle ;  but  in  the 
United  States  are  forty  million  Pigs  to  about  the  same 
number  of  sheep  and  cattle.  Austria,  Russia,  and  Germany 
are  also  big  Swine  raisers,  the  two  former  possessing  about 
ten  million  each,  while  the  last  named  has  half  as  many  again. 

These  figures  show  the  immense  importance  of  Swine 
in  providing  food  for  man.  Pork  is  the  most  popular  meat 
in  France  and  many  countries  in  Europe.  In  Chicago 
alone  there  are  firms  which  each  kill  twenty-five  thousand 
hogs  a  day ;  and  in  a  single  year  the  United  States  sends  to 
the  United  Kingdom  alone,  bacon  and  hams  to  the  value  of 

;£l  I,OOO,OOO. 


388  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

Probably  no  animal  living  is  so  wholly  useful  as  the 
domesticated  Swine.  Pig-skin  makes  a  leather  that  is 
impervious  to  wet,  and  particularly  serviceable  for  saddles  ; 
the  stiff,  strong  bristles  are  utilised  in  the  manufacture  of 
brushes ;  even  the  intestines  of  the  animal  are  used  for 
sausage  skins  ;  in  fact,  as  the  Yankees  express  it,  everything 
in  connection  with  the  hog  is  useful  with  the  exception  of 
its  squeal. 

BABYRUSSA  (Babyrussa  alfurus}. 
Coloured  Plate  XXVIII.  Fig.  2. 

The  Babyrussa,  meaning  Pig-deer,  inhabits  the  damp  and 
swampy  forests  of  the  islands  of  Celebes  and  Boru  in  the 
Malayan  Archipelago.  There  is  no  mistaking  the  animal 
for  anything  but  a  member  of  the  Pig  family ;  and  a  glance 
at  the  illustration  shows  it  to  be  quite  as  presentable  an 
animal  as  many  breeds  of  the  domesticated  Swine. 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  male  Babyrussa  is  the 
manner  in  which  the  upper  canine  teeth  grow  to  a  length 
of  fourteen  or  fifteen  inches,  appearing  through  the  skin  of 
the  face  about  midway  between  the  muzzle  and  the  eye, 
curving  strongly  upwards  in  semicircular  fashion,  until  they 
almost,  or  quite,  touch  the  forehead.  The  lower  tusks  are 
not  nearly  so  long  or  so  strongly  curved.  It  is  said  that  the 
animal  sleeps  standing  and  hooks  its  upper  jaws  on  to  a 
branch  in  order  to  support  its  head.  Another  assumption 
is  that  the  curved  horns  are  to  protect  the  animal's  eyes  as 
it  rushes  through  thickets ;  but  the  female's  horns  are  not 
developed  to  nearly  the  same  extent  as  in  the  male.  It  is 
far  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that  at  one  period  the  horns 
were  of  use  to  their  owner,  but  in  succeeding  ages  have 
not  been  employed  and  have  been  allowed  to  assume  their 
present  strange  form. 

The  skin  of  the  animal  is  dull  ashy  grey  in  colour,  with 
but  a  very  sparse  covering  of  bristles.  The  Babyrussa  is 
almost  as  swift  as  any  member  of  the  deer  tribe,  and  in 
disposition  is  rather  fierce.  Its  habits  differ  but  little  from 
those  of  Wild  Swine  generally.  It  is  an  excellent  swimmer, 


THE  WART  HOG  389 

and  not  only  enters  fresh  water  in  search  of  aquatic  plants, 
but  frequently  crosses  the  narrower  sea  channels. 

The  flesh  of  the  animal  is  highly  esteemed,  and  to  obtain 
it  the  natives  of  Celebes  organise  hunts  on  quite  a  large 
scale.  It  is  captured  in  very  much  the  same  manner  as  the 
elephant,  the  animals  being  driven  into  a  corral,  at  the  end 
of  which  they  become  entangled  in  nets,  after  which  they 
are  either  bound  or  speared.  The  sport  is  not  without 
excitement,  as  evidenced  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Guille- 
mard  : — 

'The  next  moment  a  magnificent  old  boar  Babyrussa 
rushed  past  within  five  yards  of  us,  and  plunged  into  the 
net  between  our  tree  and  the  entrance  to  the  corral.  His 
long  tusks  became  entangled  in  the  meshes,  and  the  natives 
ran  up  to  spear  him.  Just  at  this  moment,  however,  he 
broke  loose,  and,  turning  on  his  antagonists,  scattered  them 
in  all  directions.  It  was  a  most  determined  charge,  and, 
as  we  were  unable  to  fire  for  fear  of  hitting  some  of  our 
own  men,  it  might  have  proved  a  serious  affair  for  the 
native  he  singled  out.  Even  with  four  spears  buried  in  his 
body,  the  old  boar  died  game,  striving  to  the  very  last  to  get 
at  his  antagonists.' 

WAET  HOG  (Phacockcerus  czthiopicus). 
Plate  XL.  Fig.  2. 

If  the  Red  Bush  Pig  is  the  handsomest  member  of  the 
Swine  family,  the  Wart  Hog  is  the  ugliest  of  the  whole  of 
the  Ungulates,  and  the  order  includes  a  few  with  certainly 
no  pretensions  to  beauty.  The  body  is  quite  pig-like, 
massive  and  cylindrical ;  the  neck  and  back  are  clothed 
with  long,  bristly  hair,  while  the  remainder  of  the  skin  is 
practically  naked.  But  it  is  the  head  which  attracts  almost 
amazed  attention.  Of  enormous  size,  with  a  great  length 
of  muzzle,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  face  particularly  flat 
and  broad,  the  head  would  be  remarkable  in  its  ugliness  if 
its  characteristics  ended  there.  The  eyes  are  fixed  in  large 
protuberances,  which  enable  the  creature,  when  chased,  to 
throw  its  head  upwards  and  glance  at  the  foe  over  its  back. 


39° 


HOOFED  ANIMALS 


Below  each  eye  is  a  large  projection,  with  two  other  warty 
excrescences  midway  between  the  eye  and  the  tip  of  the 
snout.  Two  huge  upper  tusks  and  .a  couple  of  smaller 
lower  ones  complete  the  most  unprepossessing  physiognomy 
imaginable. 

The  animal,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties,  ranges 
from  Abyssinia  southwards  throughout  a  great  part  of  East 
Africa.  It  is  swine-like  in  its  habits,  feeding  much  on 
roots,  which  it  digs  up  with  its  tusks.  It  also  excavates 
deep  holes,  in  which  it  often  lies.  It  is  a  much  more  timid 


SKULL   OF  THE   WART   HOG. 


animal  than  the  Wild  Boar,  and  it  will  rarely  charge  even 
when  wounded. 

In  South-eastern  Africa  the  Wart  Hog  is  known  as  the 
Vlacke  Vark,  i.e.,  Black  Hog.  It  often  occupies  the  dis- 
carded burrows  of  the  Aardvark.  In  driving  the  animal 
out  of  its  retreat  a  hunter  might  not  unnaturally  take  his 
stand  immediately  at  the  back  of  the  hole  in  order  to  get  a 
shot  as  the  Wart  Hog  commences  its  flight.  The  hunter, 
however,  would  not  repeat  the  experiment,  for  the  animal 
emerges  from  the  hole  only  to  turn  a  somersault  backwards; 
and  any  person  standing  there  would  test  the  quality  of  the 
sharp  tusks  on  his  legs  before  he  could  effect  a  movement 
to  avoid  contact  with  them. 


PLATE  XLI. 


i.     COLLARED  PECCARY. 


2.     AARD-VARK. 

(See  pa^c  425) 


(Photos  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S.) 


THE   PECCARY  FAMILY  391 

FAMILY   DICOTYLID^:   (PECCARIES). 

COLLARED  PECCARY  (Dicotyles  tajacu). 

Plate  XLI.  Fig.  i. 

The  Peccaries  are  the  American  representatives  of  the 
Swine,  but  they  are  smaller,  with  the  head,  snout,  ears,  and 
tail  shorter,  more  slender  limbs,  while  the  bristles  are  longer 
and  thicker.  There  are  also  differences  in  the  dentition,  the 
upper  canine  teeth  in  particular  being  directed  downwards 
instead  of  upwards.  There  are  four  toes  on  the  front  feet, 
but  only  three  on  the  hind.  In  one  respect  the  Peccary  is 
in  advance  of  its  Old  World  cousin  :  it  possesses  a  more 
complex  stomach,  very  nearly  approaching  that  of  the 
ruminants.  The  animal  differs  in  still  another  point.  In 
the  middle  of  the  loins,  just  below  the  skin,  is  a  scent  gland 
which  pours  out  a  fluid  of  disgusting  odour,  that  renders 
the  flesh  uneatable,  unless  the  gland  is  removed  immediately 
after  the  animal  is  killed. 

The  Collared  Peccary  is  common  in  a  great  portion  of 
the  United  States  and  Central  South  America,  extending 
from  Arkansas  to  Patagonia.  It  rarely  exceeds  three  feet  in 
length  with  a  height  of  sixteen  inches  at  the  shoulder.  In 
colour  it  is  blackish  brown  with  yellowish  white  on  the 
flanks.  It  derives  its  name  from  a  line  of  white  which 
passes  from  the  fore  parts  of  the  neck  upwards  to  meet 
over  the  shoulders.  It  is  a  forest-dwelling,  rather  timid 
animal,  rarely  found  in  parties  of  more  than  nine  or  ten. 
It  dwells  in  holes  or  the  hollows  of  trees,  and  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  settled  districts  ravages  the  plantations. 

The  White-lipped  Peccary  (Dicotyles  labiatus)  is  a  slightly 
larger  species  and  infinitely  fiercer  in  disposition.  Living 
in  herds,  they  are  often  a  source  of  embarrassment  to  the 
planter,  for  they  know  no  fear ;  and  the  hunter  is  safe  from 
their  assault  only  when  he  has  gained  a  friendly  branch 
at  some  distance  from  the  ground.  Even  the  jaguar  only 
succeeds  in  capturing  a  straggling  member  of  a  herd,  and 
he,  too,  is  frequently  forced  to  seek  refuge  in  a  tree. 

When   in  its   retreat,  however,  the  Peccary  often  falls 


392  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

an  easy  prey  to  the  hunter.  In  the  holes  or  hollow  logs 
into  which  the  animals  crowd  backwards,  one  always  stands 
on  guard  with  its  head  outside.  If  this  animal  be  shot  its 
companions  push  out  the  dead  body,  for  another  sentinel 
to  take  its  place,  and  this  operation  may  be  repeated  until 
the  herd  is  disposed  of. 

The  Peccary,  like  the  Swine,  subsists  chiefly  upon  vegetable 
food,  but  it  does  not  refuse  animal  substances.  In  particular 
it  wages  war  upon  lizards  and  serpents,  which  it  devours 
with  the  greatest  avidity. 


FAMILY   HIPPOPOTAMID^E. 

HIPPOPOTAMUS  (Hippopotamus  amphibius). 

Coloured  Plate  XXVIII.  Fig.  3. 

The  Hippopotamus,  or  River  Horse,  is  the  sole  repre- 
sentative of  the  family  ;  it  frequents  the  lakes  and  rivers  of 
Central  Africa.  The  ancient  Egyptians  called  the  animal 
by  a  name  which  meant  'river-swine/  which  was  a  far 
better  title  than  horse,  with  which  animal 
the  Hippopotamus  has  nothing  in  com- 
mon. It  is  a  shapeless,  unwieldy  beast, 
attaining  a  length  of  from  twelve  to 
fourteen  feet ;  it  is  four  to  five  feet  at 
the  shoulder  ;  and  it  may  weigh  as  much 
as  four  tons,  thus  being  little  inferior  to 
the  elephant  in  bulk.  The  hide  is  dense 
and  tough,  rough  and  warty,  and  naked 
except  for  the  short  bristles  at  the  end 
of  the  tail.  The  male  is  dark  brown  in 
colour ;  the  female  is  a  yellower  shade. 

LOWER  JAW  OF  THE     ,-,,  •  «     • 

HIPPOPOTAMUS.       The   ears   are   small   and  rounded,  and, 
with   the   nostrils,  are   capable  of   being 
closed  when  the  animal  is  under  water. 

The  head  is  very  large  and  remarkable  in  form,  the 
ears,  bulging  eyes,  and  nostrils  being  all  set  in  a  line,  so 
that  the  huge  animal  can  lie  in  the  water,  totally  sub- 
merged except  for  two  or  three  inches,  and  yet  retain 


THE  HIPPOPOTAMUS  393 

its  power  to  see,  hear,  and  breathe.  The  mouth  is  a 
cavernous  opening  fitted  with  formidable  teeth.  The  jaws 
possess  terrific  power,  sufficient  to  crunch  a  canoe  into 
pieces  at  a  single  bite.  The  enormous  curved  canine  teeth 
in  the  lower  jaw  are  sometimes  thirty  inches  in  length,  with 
a  circumference  of  nine  inches  at  the  base.  The  largest 
known  tusk  was  thirty-eight  inches  over  the  curve.  The 
lower  incisors  project  in  such  a  manner  as  to  enable  the 
animal  to  cut  grass  and  reeds  as  though  with  a  pair  of 
shears  ;  and  it  has  been  known  to  sever  a  man  in  two  at  a 
single  bite. 

The  Hippopotamus  feeds  upon  riverside  herbage  and 
water-plants  and  roots.  From  the  stomach  of  a  dead 
animal  have  been  taken  six  bushels  of  chewed  grass,  giving 
a  good  idea  of  the  bulk  of  the  fodder  required  to  form  a 
meal.  Consequently,  if  but  one  animal  wanders  into  a 
native  plantation  to  satisfy  its  appetite,  it  makes  a  consider- 
able hole  in  a  crop,  omitting  what  it  beats  down  in  its 
ungainly  progress. 

On  land  the  animal  is  slow  and  heavy,  though  it  can 
travel  swiftly  for  a  short  distance  ;  but  in  the  river  it  is  per- 
fectly at  ease,  swimming,  diving,  or  walking  along  the 
bottom  with  the  utmost  facility  and  comfort.  It  is  more 
aquatic  than  any  other  of  the  Ungulates ;  it  can  swim  at 
about  ten  knots  an  hour,  and  can  remain  under  water  for 
as  long  as  five  minutes,  although  more  generally  it  is  but 
two. 

The  hide  is  of  enormous  thickness  and  will  weigh  as 
much  as  five  hundredweights  when  freshly  stripped.  It  is 
thickest  on  the  back.  It  is  largely  used  to  make  the  terrible 
sjambok  whips,  a  blow  from  which  will  make  a  groove  in  a 
deal  board.  In  the  early  days  of  South  African  settlement, 
refractory  slaves  were  often  whipped  with  the  terrible 
scourge.  The  tusks  were  formerly  greatly  prized  by  dentists, 
who  utilised  them  in  the  manufacture  of  artificial  teeth. 

The  hide  and  tusks  alone  make  the  huge  animal  well 
worth  capture  ;  and  the  natives  often  boldly  chase  it,  and 
with  spears  and  harpoons  kill  it  by  sheer  skill  and  courage. 
Very  often  peculiar  traps  are  set  in  the  paths  which  the 
animals  are  known  to  use  on  their  way  to  the  water.  The 


394  HOOFED  ANIMALS 

monster  treads  upon  a  lever  which  liberates  a  heavily 
weighted  spear  suspended  overhead.  The  weapon,  having 
a  poisoned  tip,  does  not  take  immediate  effect,  but  sooner  or 
later  the  native  discovers  the  dead  body,  and  thus  secures 
his  prize  without  the  danger  that  surrounds  a  personal 
encounter.  The  huge  animal  is  not  particularly  tenacious 
of  life — Mr.  Neumann  once  killed  four  in  four  consecutive 
shots. 

The  Hippopotamus  grazes  in  the  night,  but  during  the 
day  it  may  be  seen  disporting  itself  in  the  water,  puffing 
and  snorting  and  blowing  water  in  jets  from  its  nostrils, 
or  else  standing  quite  motionless  with  not  even  the  whole 
of  the  head  above  the  water.  Travellers  thus  coming  upon 
the  monster  unawares  have  had  good  reason  to  remember 
it.  Upon  one  occasion  a  Hippopotamus  not  only  damaged 
the  paddlewheels  of  a  steamer,  but  dug  holes  in  the  bottom 
of  it  with  its  tusks  ;  and  native  boats,  twenty  to  thirty  feet 
in  length,  are  frequently  hurled  completely  out  of  the  water. 

Dr.  Livingstone  made  acquaintance  with  the  Hippo- 
potamus when  much  less  was  known  of  its  habits  than  is 
the  case  to-day,  but  his  observations  still  hold  good  in  every 
respect :  '  The  still  reaches  are  their  favourite  haunts,  as 
elsewhere  the  constant  exertion  necessary  to  keep  them- 
selves from  being  carried  down  the  stream  disturbs  their 
nap.  They  remain  by  day  in  a  drowsy,  yawning  state, 
taking  little  notice  of  things  at  a  distance.  The  males  utter 
loud,  snorting  grunts,  which  may  be  heard  a  mile  off.  The 
young  ones  stand  on  the  necks  of  their  dams,  and  their 
small  heads  appear  first  above  the  surface  as  they  rise  to 
breathe.  The  dam,  knowing  the  more  urgent  need  of  her 
calf,  rises  more  frequently  when  it  is  in  her  care.'  In 
several  miles  of  river  as  many  as  two  or  three  hundred 
monsters  may  still  be  seen,  so  that  it  does  not  appear  likely 
that  the  animal  is  in  danger  of  extinction. 

Another  species  of  the  family  is  the  Liberian,  or  Pigmy, 
Hippopotamus  (Chceropsis  liberiensis),  inhabiting  West  and 
Central  Africa,  and  especially  Upper  Guinea.  It  is  a  smaller 
and  much  rarer  animal  than  the  foregoing. 


Chapter  XII 

ORDER  VII.— SIRENIA  (MANATEES) 


General  description  of  the  Sirenia— Manatee — 
Dugong. 


CHAPTER  XII 

Order   VII. — Sirenia  (Manatees) 

THE  Sirenia  are  fish-like,  herbivorous  mammals  that 
form  a  connecting  link  between  the  Seals  and  Whales. 
They  are  the  step  between  one  order  that  cannot  exist  out  of 
the  sea  and  another  the  members  of  which,  while  living 
entirely  on  the  products  of  the  sea,  yet  spend  part  of  their 
days  ashore,  especially  during  the  period  when  they  produce 
their  young.  At  various  times  the  animals  which  we  are 
about  to  describe  have  been  classed  with  the  Whales,  the 
Walrus  and  even  the  Elephant. 

The  most  striking  peculiarity  of  the  Sirenia,  or  Sea  Cows, 
as  they  are  often  called,  is  their  strict  vegetarianism,  which 
alone  absolutely  separates  them  from  other  rigidly  carni- 
vorous denizens  of  the  deep  ;  in  fact,  they  seem  as  much 
out  of  place  in  the  teeming  world  of  waters  as  antelopes  in 
a  jungle  infested  with  tigers. 

MANATEE  (Manatus  australis). 
Coloured  Plate  XXX.  Fig.  i. 

The  Manatee  inhabits  the  shallow  seas  and  the  river 
estuaries  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  in  West  African  waters  is 
found  a  very  similar  species.  Their  food  consists  chiefly  of 
marine  and  aquatic  weeds. 

The  body  of  the  animal  is  oblong  in  shape,  terminating 
in  a  lengthened  oval  tail  which  is  placed  vertically.  The 
front  limbs,  which  are  only  exaggerated  fins,  are  capable  of 

397 


398  MANATEES 

rendering  prehensile  service.  The  name  Manatee  is  derived 
from  manuSy  a  hand,  on  account  of  the  hand-like  con- 
struction of  the  flippers,  in  which  the  bones  of  the  four 
fingers  can  be  very  distinctly  traced.  The  skin,  dark  brown 
or  nearly  black  in  colour,  is  exceedingly  hard  and  tough. 
Though  usually  only  seven  or  eight  feet  in  length,  a  twelve- 
foot  Manatee  with  a  corresponding  increase  in  girth  is  no 
unusual  occurrence. 

In  various  of  its  characteristics  the  Manatee  somewhat 
closely  resembles  the  seal,  notably  in  its  nostril-shaped  blow- 
holes, its  large,  expressive  eyes,  whiskers  on  the  muzzle,  and 
a  sprinkling  of  hairs  on  the  body.  The  teeth  are  practically 
restricted  to  molars,  for  the  incisors  at  their  best  are  very 
rudimentary. 


SKELETON  OF  THE  MANATEE. 


It  is  said  that  the  Manatee  gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  the 
mermaid.  Considering  that  it  is  a  supremely  ugly  animal, 
one  can  scarcely  understand  it  being  taken  for  a  lady  of  the 
exquisite  and  attractive  beauty  that  is  popularly  attributed 
to  the  mermaid.  Nevertheless,  from  the  pose  of  the  head 
and  the  suddenness  with  which  it  pops  up,  at  a  distance  on 
a  bright  moonlight  night  perhaps  it  would  present  sufficient 
resemblance  to  the  human  form  divine  to  excuse  the 
generic  name,  Sirenia. 

It  is  permissible  to  doubt  whether  the  mythological  siren 
by  her  song  ever  inspired  ecstatic  devotion  in  those  who 
heard  her  ;  but  it  is  an  absolute  fact  that  the  Manatee  clings 
to  but  one  mate,  whom  it  will  not  leave  even  in  the  face  of 
death,  and  both  parents  display  a  corresponding  fondness 
for  their  young.  It  is  said  that  the  young  are  placed 


THE  SEA-COWS  399 

in  the  centre  of  a  school  when  dangerous  enemies  are 
near. 

In  the  regions  where  the  Manatee  abounds  it  affords 
excellent  food,  having  somewhat  the  taste  of  coarse  pork ; 
Humboldt  declared  it  was  equal  to  the  best  of  ham.  South 
American  monks  prefer  to  view  the  animal  as  a  fish,  as 
they  do  the  whale  family,  and  thus  the  Manatee  provides 
sumptuous  fleshy  fare  for  the  season  of  Lent. 

Mr.  Bates,  who  captured  a  Manatee  in  a  canoe  voyage 
on  the  Amazon,  does  not  praise  the  flavour  of  its  flesh  as 
some  other  travellers  have  done.  'The  meat  was  cut  up 
into  cubical  slabs,  and  each  person  skewered  a  dozen  or 
so  of  these  on  a  long  stick.  Fires  were  made,  and  the 
spits  stuck  in  the  ground,  and  slanted  over  the  flames  to 
roast.  The  meat  has  somewhat  the  taste  of  coarse  pork ; 
but  the  fat,  which  lies  in  thick  layers  between  the  lean 
parts,  is  of  a  greenish  colour,  and  of  a  disagreeable  fishy 
flavour.' 


DUGONG  (Halicore  dugong). 
Coloured  Plate  XXX.  Fig.  2. 

The  Dugong  is  a  native  of  eastern  waters,  various  species 
being  met  with  in  the  Red  Sea  and  as  far  east  as  Australia. 
The  best  known  is  the  one  illustrated,  which  differs  from 
the  manatee  chiefly  in  the  variation  of  its  tail,  which  takes 
the  form  of  a  crescent-shaped  flapper.  The  creature  is 
sometimes  regarded  as  a  veritable  cow  of  the  'sea  pas- 
tures ' ;  and  certain  it  is  that  along  the  coast  of  Queensland, 
especially  in  river  estuaries,  it  may  be  seen  snatching 
tussocks  of  long  grass  at  the  edge  of  the  water,  when  it 
comes  up  to  breathe.  This  is  the  fullest  extent  of  its 
grazing  propensities ;  it  never  leaves  the  water  in  search 
of  vegetable  food.  The  Dugong  more  often  than  not 
exceeds  the  manatee  in  size,  and  the  male  is  furnished 
with  two  large  tusk-like  teeth,  which  are  never  found  in 
a  manatee  of  either  sex.  Its  flesh  when  roasted  is  said 
to  taste  like  pork  and  veal  combined,  and  the  Mahome- 


400 


MANATEES 


tans,  whose  religion  bans  the  pig,  esteem  the  flesh  of  the 
porky  marine  mammal  as  a  great  delicacy.  The  Malays 
view  the  creature  as  a  '  royal  fish/  just  as  we  still  do 
the  sturgeon,  and  the  native  Kings  claim  all  that  are 
captured  within  their  territories.  i  When  cured,  the  flesh  is 
considered  in  Queensland  a  relishing  article  of  diet  for  the 
breakfast  table,  having  the  flavour  of  good  bacon  with  just 
an  agreeable  "bloater"  twang  added.  The  tail,  which  is 
very  fat,  is  much  esteemed,  and  is  generally  soused  or 
pickled.'  The  Dugong  yields  a  particularly  clear  oil,  the 
commercial  value  of  which  gives  rise  to  important  fisheries, 
especially  in  Australia,  that  threaten  to  exterminate  the 
creature.  The  skin  can  be  dressed  into  useful  leather.  A 
German  writer  has  attempted  to  prove  that  the  Tabernacle 
of  the  Israelites  was  roofed  with  Dugong  skin.  As  the 
animal  is  found  in  the  Red  Sea  it  was  possible  for  it  to 
have  been  put  to  such  a  use.  Further  than  that  we  cannot 
decide. 

One  species,  the  Rhytina,  which  was  the  real  Sea  Cow, 
attained  a  length  of  twenty  feet.  In  the  comparatively  short 
period  of  thirty  years  it  was  swept  off  the  face  of  the  earth 
in  the  unceasing  pursuit  of  the  creature  for  the  sake  of 
its  oil. 


PLATE  XLII. 


i.     THE   CACHALOT'S   FIGHT   FOR  POWER. 
2.     A   SPERM   WHALE   BABY. 

(See  page  411) 


Chapter  XIII 

ORDER    VIII.— CETACEA    (WHALES 
AND  DOLPHINS) 


27 


General   description   of  the    Cetacea— Green- 
land   Whale— Southern   Right    Whale— Com- 
mon    Rorqual — Humpback    Whale — Cachalot 
or     Sperm    Whale  —  Narwhal  —  Porpoise  - 
Dolphin— Killer  Whale. 


Plate  XXIX. 


1.  Cachelot 


2.  Greenland  Whale 


3.  Humpbacked  Whale 


CHAPTER  XIII 

Order  VIIL— Cctacca 

(Whales   and   Dolphins) 

UNDER  the  general  name  of  Cetacea,  i.e.,  the  Whales, 
are   classed   together  a  wonderful  group  of  marine 
Mammalia,  which  includes  not  only  the  true  Whales,  but 
also  the  Dolphin,  Narwhal,  Porpoise,  and  Grampus. 

Notwithstanding  their  marked  resemblance  to  fishes,  the 
Cetacea  possess  the  most  indubitable  mammalian  character- 
istics. By  means  of  lungs  they  breathe  atmospheric  air; 
their  warm  blood  is  pulsated  by  a  four-chambered  heart; 
and  they  produce  living  young,  which  in  their  youthful 
stages  derive  nourishment  from  the  milk  that  they  draw 
from  their  mothers.  Usually  there  is  only  one  young  one 
at  a  birth,  Rorquals  proving  the  exception  in  sometimes 
having  two  offspring. 

Though  the  Cetacea  vary  in  size  and  differ  in  many 
details,  they  all  agree  in  certain  additional  points.  With 
the  exception  of  a  West  African  species  of  Dolphin,  which 
is  at  least  partly  herbivorous,  these  marine  mammals  are 
carnivorous.  They  possess  no  hind  limbs,  but  use  a  hori- 
zontal appendage  to  propel  their  bodies  through  the  water ; 
and  this  form  of  tail  is  particularly  serviceable  in  assisting 
the  animal  to  rise  quickly  from  a  great  depth  to  the  surface. 
The  fore  limbs  are  composed  of  four  or  five  digits,  which 
are  only  visible  in  the  skeleton.  Many  species  possess  a 
dorsal  fin.  Underneath  the  skin  is  a  thick  layer  of  fat, 
from  eight  to  twenty  inches  in  thickness,  which  is  called 
blubber.  Whaling  men  speak  of  it  as  the  '  blanket.'  The 

403 


4o4  WHALES  AND   DOLPHINS 

fat  serves  the  animal  for  warmth,  and  in  addition  renders 
the  huge  body  exceedingly  buoyant  ;  a  dead  Right  Whale, 
for  example,  weighing  over  two  hundred  tons,  will  float; 
but  when  the  carcase  is  skinned  it  sinks. 

The  order  of  the  Cetacea  is  divided  into  two  sub-orders. 
In  the  Mystacoceti  is  the  single  family  Balaenidae.  In  the 
members  of  this  family  there  are  two  nostrils,  or  '  blow- 
holes,' and  instead  of  teeth  the  mouth  is  fitted  with  plates 
of  baleen,  popularly  and  wrongly  termed  '  whalebone.' 

It  may  be  here  noted  that  baleen  is  not  bone,  but  is 
analogous  to  hair.  Dip  a  tuft  of  hair  in  any  gelatinous 
substance,  and  when  dried  a  transverse  section  placed 
under  the  microscope  will  well  represent  a  section  of 
baleen  (see  Fig.  D  in  the  illustration). 

In  the  sub-order  Odontoceti,  which  includes  all  the  re- 
maining Cetaceans,  teeth  always  appear  in  one  or  both 
jaws,  baleen  is  absent,  and  there  is  but  one  external  '  blow- 
hole.' 

To  speak  of  whale-fishing  is  really  a  misnomer,  yet  there 
is  an  intimate  industrial  and  commercial  connection 
between  sea  fisheries  proper  and  the  systematic  hunting 
of  the  Cetacea  and  the  Pinnipedia,  or  Seals.  Oils,  seal- 
skins, furs,  baleen,  spermaceti,  ambergris,  and  ivory  are 
no  inconsiderable  additions  to  the  finny  food-harvest  of 
the  sea. 


FAMILY 

GREENLAND   WHALE  (Balcena  mysticetus). 
Coloured  Plate  XXIX.  Fig.  2. 

The  Greenland  Whale,  or  '  Right  Whale,1  is  a  denizen  of 
the  Arctic  seas.  Nowadays  specimens  exceeding  fifty  feet  in 
length  are  rare,  but  before  the  creature  was  so  remorselessly 
hunted  it  more  often  attained  maturity  and  a  length  of 
seventy  or  even  eighty  feet. 

The  '  Right  Whale'  has  no  teeth,  but  hanging  transversely 
from  the  upper  jaw  are  some  six  hundred  plates  or  strips  of 
baleen,  varying  from  one  inch  in  length  at  the  ends  of  the 
mouth  to  a  dozen  or  even  sixteen  feet  in  the  centre.  These 


THE  GREENLAND  WHALE 


405 


dangling  strips,  which  are  even  on  one  edge  and  fringed  on 
the  other,  cause  the  mouth  of  the  Whale  to  look  as  though 
it  were  lined  with  a  coarse  hair  mat.  The  length  of  the 
baleen  gives  some  idea  of  the  size  of  the  Whale's  mouth, 


BALEEN   OR   WHALEBONE. 

A.  A  back  view  of  the  whale's  skull,    with  the  baleen  flakes  (TV) 

spreading  out  from  the  upper  bones  (m)  of  the  skull.    The  lower 
jawbones  (J)  are  shown  as  removed  from  the  skull. 

B.  Baleen  flakes  with  fringed  edges. 

C.  Three  flakes  on  a  larger  scale  set  side  by  side. 

D.  Baleen  cut  across  and  magnified  under  the  microscope. 


and  it  is  not  without  reason  that  sailors  assert,  that  a  ship's 
jolly-boat  with  crew  complete  could  row  into  the  cavernous 
aperture  without  touching  its  sides. 

The  use  of  the  baleen  is  to  strain  the  myriads  of  small 


406  WHALES  AND   DOLPHINS 

molluscs  and  jelly-fish  which  the  leviathan  takes  in  its  open 
mouth,  as  it  leisurely  passes  through  the  water  at  a  rate  of 
about  four  miles  an  hour.  The  tongue,  an  immense  mass 
of  fat  nearly  two  tons  in  weight,  rises  up  and  forces 
out  the  water  between  the  plates  of  fringed  baleen  as 
through  a  sieve,  leaving  a  mass  of  food  to  pass  down 
the  Whale's  gullet,  which  is  only  one  and  a  half  inches 
in  diameter. 

Notwithstanding  its  enormous  dimensions,  the  Greenland 
Whale  is  mild  and  inoffensive  ;  it  leads  a  timorous  and 
slothful  life,  perhaps  chiefly  due  to  its  hampering  immensity 
and  the  fact  that  its  food  costs  it  so  little  effort  to  obtain. 
It  does  not  even  attack  its  pursuers,  and  accidents  to 
whaling  boats  are  caused  by  the  sudden  diving  of  the 
quarry,  or  the  boat  approaching  too  near  in  its  tremendous 
death-struggles. 

The  young  Whale  measures  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  in 
length  at  birth,  and  its  mother  suckles  it  for  about  a  year. 
A  school  of  these  northern  Whales  usually  consists  of  a  bull 
and  a  couple  of  cows,  each  with  a  calf. 

The  whaling  business  has  been  depressed  for  many  years. 
Half  a  century  ago  the  whalers  of  one  Scottish  port  alone 
would  account  for  fifty  or  more  Whales  in  a  season.  Nowa- 
days not  half  that  number  are  captured  by  all  the  Scottish 
boats  combined ;  and  the  animals  are  smaller,  on  an  average 
yielding  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  barrels  of  oil  instead 
of  formerly  perhaps  twice  as  much.  The  quantity  of  baleen 
varies  from  one  to  three  thousand  pounds.  Thanks  to  the 
substitution  of  steel  for  many  articles  that  formerly  called 
for  whalebone,  gas  and  electricity  for  lighting  purposes,  and 
the  increasing  competition  of  vegetable  and  mineral  oils, 
Whale  hunting  is  probably  never  likely  to  attain  its  former 
prosperity.  Some  authorities  maintain  that  there  is  really 
no  appreciable  diminution  in  the  number  of  Whales,  but 
that  modern  methods  are  responsible  for  decreasing  catches. 
Steam  screw  vessels  have  replaced  the  old  sailers ;  and  it  is 
said  that  the  revolving  screws  give  notice  to  the  sensitive 
hearing  of  the  Whale  that  enemies  are  at  hand,  with  the 
result  that  the  prospective  prey  immediately  seeks  haunts 
where  lies  a  greater  measure  of  safety. 


THE  COMMON  RORQUAL  407 


SOUTHERN   EIGHT   WHALE  (Balana  australis). 

The  Southern  Right  Whale  structurally  is  almost  identical 
with  its  northern  congener ;  in  habitat  it  is  exceedingly 
different.  The  Greenland  Whale  is  never  seen  in  Temperate 
waters,  and  it  is  a  mystery  what  it  does  with  itself  during 
the  long  Arctic  winter,  when  all  the  Polar  seas  are  locked 
under  many  feet  of  ice.  Open  water  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  the  existence  of  any  marine  mammal,  yet  the  most  enter- 
prising whale-fishers  seek  it  in  vain  during  the  long  night  of 
the  Arctic  regions.  The  Southern  Right  Whale,  on  the  other 
hand,  prefers  the  waters  outside  the  Antarctic  Circle,  and  is 
found  in  large  numbers  as  far  north  as  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  Formerly  French  whalers  hunted  the  southern 
waters  with  fair  profit  to  themselves,  but  in  recent  years 
they  have  ceased  operations,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  a 
dozen  Whales  are  taken  in  the  course  of  a  year,  and  those 
more  by  accident  than  of  set  purpose.  Consequently  the 
Southern  Right  Whale  is  increasing  in  numbers,  and  there 
are  many  thousands  of  square  miles  of  silent  seas  away 
from  the  tracks  of  ocean-going  steamers,  where  immense 
herds  of  Whales  live  out  their  lives  with  only  the  fear  of 
their  strictly  natural  enemies. 

COMMON   RORQUAL  (Balanoptera  musculus). 

The  Common  Rorqual  is  a  typical  species  of  the  '  finners/ 
as  sailors  term  them  ;  the  generic  name  means  '  Finned 
Whale,'  in  reference  to  the  small  back  fin  that  lies  near 
the  region  of  the  tail.  It  attains  an  enormous  size  ;  one 
caught  in  the  North  Sea  was  ninety-five  feet  in  length, 
twenty-two  feet  in  width,  and  weighed  over  two  hundred 
and  fifty  tons. 

Rorquals  are  the  most  widely  distributed  of  all  the  larger 
Cetaceans ;  they  are  found  nearly  everywhere  outside  the 
Antarctic  regions,  and  are  by  no  means  uncommon  in 
British  waters.  Sometimes  when  one  has  been  driven 
ashore  it  has  been  an  object  of  curiosity  to  visitors  drawn 
from  far  and  wide.  A  little  later  the  sanitary  authorities 


4o8  WHALES  AND   DOLPHINS 

have  been  at  their  wits'  end  to  get  rid  of  the  mountain 
of  decaying  flesh  that  was  proving  a  menace  to  the  health 
of  the  district. 

The  Rorqual  is  viewed  with  particular  disfavour  by  fisher- 
men, for  in  the  stomach  of  a  dead  Whale  have  been  found 
no  less  than  nine  hundred  codfish.  But  the  Whale  piles 
up  injury  upon  injury.  It  not  only  disposes  of  vast  quan- 
tities of  fish  that  might  be  put  to  more  profitable  use  by 
the  toilers  of  the  sea,  but  calmly  swims  through  thousands 
of  pounds'  worth  of  their  tangled  nets,  while  with  each  gulp 
it  takes  in  boat-loads  of  herrings,  mackerel,  or  other  kinds  of 
edible  fish.  Finally,  as  if  it  had  not  worked  sufficient  mis- 
chief, it  causes  the  shoal  to  split  up  into  sections,  which  seek 
to  escape  the  visitation  in  deeper  waters  further  out  at  sea, 
leaving  the  fishermen  to  bewail  the  loss  of  what  might  have 
proved  to  be  a  golden  harvest. 

In  the  palmy  days  of  whale-hunting  the  Rorqual  was 
practically  unmolested,  for  not  only  is  the  yield  of  blubber 
relatively  small,  and  the  baleen  scanty  and  poor  in  quality, 
but  the  animal  is  speedier  than  the  Right  Whale,  and  con- 
sequently it  is  far  more  difficult  to  kill  and  secure  it.  The 
trouble  lies  in  the  latter.  Owing  to  the  thinness  of  its 
'  blanket '  of  blubber  a  dead  Rorqual  promptly  sinks  to  the 
bottom,  and  no  plan  of  the  ordinary  whaler  could  prevent 
the  weight  of  perhaps  two  hundred  tons  or  more  passing 
out  of  his  reach. 

The  scarcity  of  the  Greenland  Whale  and  the  advancing 
price  of  baleen,  which  has  a  value  of  about  .£2,000  a  ton, 
have  made  the  capture  of  the  Rorqual  more  of  a  necessity 
than  in  former  days.  Modern  ingenuity  has  robbed  the 
chase  of  some  of  its  dangers,  while  increasing  the  certainty 
of  retaining  the  capture.  The  Norwegians,  perhaps,  make 
the  most  commercial  use  of  the  Rorqual,  and  their  method 
will  well  serve  as  one  example  of  modern  whale-hunting. 

'  Small  steamers  like  the  "jackal"  tug-boats  of  the 
Thames  are  fitted  out.  In  the  bows  they  carry  a  cannon, 
designed  to  fire  a  massive  harpoon,  instead  of  a  shot  or 
shell.  To  the  harpoon  is  attached  a  stout  rope,  far  stouter 
than  ordinary  whale-line,  which  is  one  and  a  half  inches  in 
girth.  A  powerful  steam  windlass  is  fitted  in  the  bows  also. 


THE  COMMON   RORQUAL  409 

'  Presently  coming  up  with  the  whale,  the  gun  is  fired, 
the  great  harpoon  buries  itself  in  the  quivering  monster, 
sometimes,  indeed,  with  a  small  bomb  in  its  head.  With 
scarcely  any  exception,  once  the  harpoon  has  found  its 
mark,  the  fate  of  that  Rorqual  is  sealed.  The  wound  is  so 
deep,  the  strain  is  so  great,  that  in  a  short  time  it  succumbs 
and  sinks  dead.' 

When  the  windlass  is  started  the  immense  carcass  is 
towed  off  to  a  shore  station,  where  not  only  the  blubber 
and  baleen  are  secured,  but  every  other  vestige  of  fat  is 
utilised  to  swell  the  tale  of  oil  barrels.  The  huge  mass  of 
offal  and  bones  is  converted  into  manure.  It  is  a  brutal 
business,  robbed  of  the  merest  claim  to  sport ;  but  it  at 
least  gains  for  the  Rorqual  hunter  a  precarious  living  in 
return  for  arduous  toil  not  unmixed  with  frightful  perils. 
The  Greenland  WThale  is  hunted  in  a  very  similar  manner, 
except  that  its  buoyant  carcass  is  dragged  to  the  side  of  the 
whaling  vessel,  instead  of  ashore  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Rorqual. 

When  a  shoal  of  Rorquals  approaches  the  coast  of  the 
Faroe  Islands  the  fishermen  at  once  put  out  in  boats. 
Strangely  enough,  the  Whales  do  not  dive  under  the  boats 
and  escape,  as  they  might  easily  do,  but  allow  themselves  to 
be  driven  into  a  bay.  Along  the  shore  stands  a  dense  crowd 
of  women  and  children,  with  a  sprinkling  of  veterans 
whose  whaling  days  are  over,  yet  who  hasten  from  all 
parts  to  witness  the  spectacle.  As  soon  as  the  Whales  are 
in  the  cove,  with  the  boats  forming  a  serried  line  across  its 
mouth,  the  signal  is  given  to  the  men,  spear  in  hand, 
standing  in  the  bows. 

The  spears  whiz  through  the  air  and  the  oarsmen  shoot 
forward  into  the  terror-stricken  shoal,  driving  it  into  the 
shallows.  Timber  crashes  and  splinters  as  boats  collide, 
and  the  wretched  creatures,  with  quivering  spears  embedded 
in  their  flesh,  spout  jets  of  blood.  Some  men  leap  over- 
board, and,  with  long  knives  held  in  their  teeth,  wade 
chest  high  towards  animals  that  flap  helplessly  in  the 
shallow  water.  Others  lean  over  the  sides  of  the  boats, 
thrust  great  iron  hooks  into  wounded  Whales,  and,  in  spite  of 
their  frenzied  struggles,  hack  through  to  the  spinal  column. 


4io  WHALES  AND   DOLPHINS 

The  Whale  drive,  with  the  strategic  skill  involved,  may 
possess  all  the  zest  of  sport,  but  the  massacre  sickens  one 
with  its  barbaric  savagery.  At  such  a  moment  it  is  difficult 
to  remember  that  the  seemingly  merciless  butchers  are  but 
honest  toilers  filling  the  winter  larder  according  to  the 
immemorial  Faroese  custom.  By  the  time  the  last  victim's 
agony  is  over  the  water  of  the  bay  is  literally  crimson,  the 
men  are  dripping  and  blood-smeared.  Then,  suddenly  as  it 
began,  the  hubbub  subsides,  and  the  ferocious  whale- 
hunter  becomes  once  more  the  peaceable  Faroeman. 


HUMPBACK   WHALE  (Megaptera  boops). 
Coloured  Plate  XXIX.  Fig.  3. 

A  glance  at  the  illustration  will  show  the  dorsal  erection 
like  a  dumpy  fin  which  gains  for  the  animal  the  name 
'  Humpback '  ;  but  the  most  marked  difference  between  this 
species  and  those  already  described  rests  in  the  greater 
length  of  the  arms,  hence  justifying  the  generic  name, 
which  signifies  '  great  wings.'  Attaining  a  length  of  forty- 
five  to  fifty  feet,  with  flippers  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet 
long,  the  Humpback  ranges  through  the  seas  of  all  latitudes 
between  the  two  frozen  oceans. 

All  Whales  are  grievously  afflicted  by  parasites,  barnacles, 
limpets,  and  slimy  sea-grass  that  cause  the  monsters  unbear- 
able irritation.  The  Humpback  probably  suffers  more 
than  any  other  of  the  tribe.  The  belly  blubber  is  divided 
into  longitudinal  folds  with  grooves  over  two  inches  in 
depth,  in  which  limpets  breed  with  but  little  fear  of 
removal,  even  when  the  Whale  drags  its  vast  body  over 
submerged  rocks  or  along  the  bottom  of  a  coral  reef. 

Humpbacks  usually  yield  but  a  moderate  amount  of  oil, 
often  only  ten  barrels,  though  sometimes  an  extra  blubbered 
specimen  will  furnish  ten  times  the  quantity.  In  common 
with  the  Rorqual,  the  Humpback  is  nevertheless  hunted 
more  frequently  than  was  formerly  the  case.  Off  the  coast 
of  Norway  and  the  north  coast  of  Ireland  they  are  occa- 
sionally very  numerous.  Short  excursions  that  end  in 
the  capture  of  a  number  of  poor  Whales  may  really  result 


THE  CACHALOT  411 

in  more  profit  than  a  prolonged  voyage  to  the  far  distant 
North  in  search  of  the  more  elusive  Right  Whale. 


FAMILY  CATADONTID^E. 

CACHALOT  (Catadon  macrocephalus). 

Coloured  Plate  XXIX.  Fig.  i. 

The  Cachalot,  or  Sperm  Whale,  is  '  long-headed/  as 
indicated  by  its  generic  name,  and  indeed  its  head  occupies 
about  one-third  of  its  total  length  of  from  fifty-four  to  sixty 
feet.  Probably  when  the  species  was  more  abundant,  larger 
ones  were  encountered;  in  any  case  it  is  still  one  of  the  largest 
of  the  Cetaceans.  In  each  side  of  the  lower  jaw  of  the 
Cachalot  are  set  twenty  conical  teeth  of  immense  size  and 
strength,  which  grow  from  below  as  fast  as  they  are  worn 
down  above.  The  teeth  are  sometimes  nine  inches  in  length, 
nine  inches  in  girth,  and  weigh  quite  three  pounds.  In 
the  upper  jaw  there  are  no  teeth,  but  grooves  into  which  the 
teeth  fit.  When  once  the  mouth  is  closed  no  creature  living 
could  extricate  itself.  This  peculiarity  of  structure  is 
valuable,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  staple  diet  of  the  Sperm 
Whale  consists  of  gigantic  squids  or  cuttle  fishes,  whose 
slippery  bodies  need  some  special  provision  to  ensure  a  firm 
grip  of  them. 

Sperm  Whales  are  found  chiefly  in  the  open  and  warmer 
oceans,  and  that  they  travel  from  one  ocean  to  another 
has  been  satisfactorily  proved.  In  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
have  been  caught  Whales  in  whose  bodies  were  fixed 
spears,  which  were  mementoes  of  unsuccessful  attacks 
upon  the  monsters  by  natives  of  the  Pacific  islands. 

Sperm  Whales  are  gregarious,  and  when  the  animals 
were  more  numerous  schools  of  several  hundreds  were  not 
uncommon ;  the  present-day  whale-hunter  would  rejoice 
if  he  encountered  a  school  of  forty  or  fifty.  Generally  only 
one  young  one  is  produced  at  a  birth,  and  it  is  weaned 
when  it  is  about  a  month  old  (Plate  XLII.  Fig.  2). 

Though  the  mouth  of  the  Cachalot  is  devoid  of  baleen, 
the  animal  in  other  directions  atones  for  the  lack  of  it. 


412 


WHALES  AND  DOLPHINS 


The  blubber  oil  is  of  a  finer  quality,  and  fetches  a  higher 

price  than  that  of  most  other 
Cetaceans.  Reference  to  the 
skeleton  of  this  Whale  shows  a 
large  space  between  the  upper 
jawbone  and  the  top  of  the 
head.  During  life  this  space 
is  filled  with  liquid  and  limpid 
spermaceti,  which  is  a  peculiar 
product,  much  lighter  than  oil, 
and  which,  when  purified, 
assumes  a  white,  flaky  form,  of 
great  service  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  candles  and  for  some 
medicinal  purposes.  Ambergris 
is  another  valuable  product  of 
the  Sperm  Whale.  It  is  a  solid, 
fatty  substance  of  particular 
value  in  the  manufacture  of 
perfumes.  It  is  a  product  of 
the  bile  of  the  Whale,  which  is 
found  not  only  in  the  intestines 
of  the  animal,  but  is  more  often 
picked  up  at  sea  in  ejected 
masses  of  fifty  and  even  a 
hundred  pounds'  weight.  Re- 
fined ambergris  is  worth  about 
£5  an  ounce,  which  at  once 
indicates  the  scarcity  of  the 
substance. 

In  disposition  the  Cachalot  is 
very  unlike  the  timorous  Green- 
land Whale.  In  Sperm-whaling 
the  demolition  of  boats  by 
wounded  Whales  was  quite  a 
common  incident.  An  infuri- 
ated Whale  has  smashed  a  boat 
by  blows  of  its  enormous  flukes, 
and  then  chewed  its  timbers  into  matchwood.  Instances  are 
upon  record  where  wounded  and  maddened  monsters  have 


THE  CACHALOT  413 

ferociously  rammed  full-rigged  ships  and  sent  them  to  the 
bottom.  It  is  well  within  the  bounds  of  probability  that  many 
a  vessel  that  has  disappeared,  without  leaving  the  slightest 
clue  to  its  fate,  came  to  grief  through  accidental  collision 
with,  or  as  the  result  of  deliberate  attack  by,  a  Whale.  Even 
full-grown  Whale  cows  are  gentle  and  inoffensive  creatures ; 
but  there  are  furious  conflicts  between  the  young  bulls  for 
choice  of  mates,  and  also  between  the  older  ones  for  the 
leadership  of  a  school  (Plate  XLII.  Fig.  i). 

The  Whale  is  an  astonishing  animal,  and  in  order  that  it 
may  subsist  a  number  of  apparently  contradictory  condi- 
tions must  be  reconciled.  It  is  a  warm-blooded  mammal, 
and  yet  spends  its  life  wholly  in  cold  water.  In  order  to  dive 
to  great  depths  it  must  be  able  to  make  its  body  heavier 
than  a  corresponding  bulk  of  water,  and  conversely  at  will 
make  it  lighter  in  order  to  reach  the  surface.  Though 
breathing  atmospheric  air  through  nostrils,  the  animal  can 
exist  at  a  greater  depth  than  where  the  pressure  of  the 
water  would  force  its  particles  into  solid  oak,  and  yet  no 
water  can  reach  the  Whale's  lungs.  It  must  be  able  to 
exist  without  breathing  at  all  for  at  least  the  space  of  an 
hour.  With  the  bones,  ears,  and  eyes  of  a  mammal  it 
has  to  move,  hear,  and  see  as  though  it  were  a  fish. 
Difficult  as  these  problems  appear,  they  are  by  no  means 
impossible  of  explanation. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  heat  of  the  WThale  being  absorbed 
by  the  cold  water  the  animal  is  fitted  with  a  modified  skin 
called  '  blubber/  into  the  composition  of  which  non- 
ducting  oil  very  largely  enters.  The  fibres,  instead  of  being 
flattened  out,  as  in  the  skin  of  most  mammals,  are  con- 
verted into  innumerable  cells,  and  thus  even  from  a  wound 
there  is  practically  no  escape  of  oil. 

The  Whale  is  able  to  sink  at  will  without  diving.  It  has 
but  to  contract  its  exceedingly  powerful  panniculus  carnosus 
(see  p.  92)  to  diminish  its  body  in  size  and  cause  it  to  be 
heavier  than  its  own  bulk  of  water.  The  relaxation  of  the 
muscle  restores  lightness  to  the  body,  and  a  few  powerful 
strokes  with  the  tail  will  afford  sufficient  velocity  not  only 
quickly  to  reach  the  surface,  but  to  throw  the  huge  body 
completely  out  of  the  water. 


414 


WHALES  AND   DOLPHINS 


The  average  human  being  finds  himself  taxed  to  the 
utmost  to  remain  under  water  for  a  minute,  and  even  those 
who  have  specially  developed  the  capacity  of  their  lungs 
cannot  remain  for  longer  than  from  two  and  a  half  to  three 
minutes.  The  ability  of  the  Whale  to  exist  for  as  long  as 
an  hour  without  breathing  does  not  depend  upon  an 
abnormal  development  of  the  lungs,  for  an  hour's  supply  of 
air  would  occupy  the  space  of  several  large  balloons,  and 
would  give  more  aid  in  flying  than  in  sinking. 

The  object  of  respiration  is  to  purify  the  blood  (see 
p.  24),  without  which  the  whole  nervous  system  would 
become  paralysed  and  death  would  ensue.  It  is  impossible 
for  the  Whale  to  take  a  supply  of  air  down  into  the  depths 
of  the  ocean ;  but  it  can  take  down  a  supply  of  purified 
blood  upon  which  it  can  draw  and  gradually  substitute  for 
the  fluid  which  has  been  robbed  of  its  life-giving  qualities. 
In  addition  to  ordinary  arteries  and  veins,  the  Whale 
possesses  a  blood  reservoir  called  the  intercostal  plexus, 
which  is  a  vast  mass  of  small  tubes  which  are  neither  veins 
nor  arteries. 

'  Spouting '  or  *  blowing '  is  but  the  operation  of  purifying 
the  reservoir  of  blood.  When  the  animal  comes  to  the 
surface,  after  submergence,  it  first  expels  the  air  in  its  lungs, 
with  which  it  connects  the  plexus  as  it  takes  its  first  deep 
breath.  By  repeated  expirations  and  inspirations  the 
Whale  restores  purity  to  the  blood  in  the  plexus,  and  then 
breathes  quietly  like  any  other  mammal.  The  fountain-like 
appearance  of  spouting  is  easily  explainable.  The  ejected 
air  is  saturated  with  hot  water  vapour  which  the  cold 
external  air  at  once  condenses  into  a  column  of  steam  or 
spray  ;  but  not  infrequently  the  Whale  commences  blowing 
before  it  actually  reaches  the  surface,  and  then  the  column 
is  reinforced  by  the  addition  of  a  considerable  amount  of 
sea  water. 

An  oft  repeated  question  is,  Could  a  Whale  swallow 
Jonah  ?  Putting  aside  the  meaning  of  the  word  which  is 
rendered  as  '  fish  '  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  as  '  whale  '  in 
the  New,  let  us  view  Whales  as  they  really  are.  It  may  be 
accepted  as  a  fact  that  a  fish  no  larger  than  a  good-sized 
herring  would  choke  a  Greenland  Whale.  In  the  case  of 


Plate  XXX. 


5.  Dolphin 


THE  NARWHAL  415 

the  Cachalot  it  is  a  very  different  matter.  Most  Whales 
in  their  death-throes  eject  the  contents  of  the  stomach, 
and  a  dying  Cachalot  will  frequently  vomit  masses  of 
cuttlefish  as  big  as  a  fair-sized  feather  bed.  But  even 
if  we  accept  the  rendering  '  fish '  we  shall  still  be  in  as 
good  case.  There  still  exist  sharks  that  can  swallow  a 
man  whole,  and  certain  extinct  species  are  known  to  have 
attained  a  length  of  a  hundred  and  twenty  feet.  Such  a 
monster  would  not  have  hesitated  at  Jonah,  but  would 
have  welcomed  the  greater  part  of  the  crew  that  threw 
the  prophet  overboard. 

There  are  other  large  and  almost  equally  interesting 
species  of  the  Cetacea  of  which  space  alone  forbids  any 
detailed  description.  Various  economic  products  of  the 
Whale  have  been  referred  to,  but  there  is  no  Cetacean 
that  does  not  serve  for  food  in  many  countries,  and 
especially  in  the  Arctic  regions.  The  Eskimo  will  eat  the 
raw  flesh  of  the  Whale  with  immense  relish.  In  Barbadoes 
and  other  West  Indian  islands  the  Humpback  flesh  is 
preferred  to  beef.  In  the  South  Pacific  the  natives  view 
a  stranded  Whale  as  a  special  dispensation  of  Providence. 
An  Australian  traveller  describes  the  feast  of  a  whole  tribe 
of  aborigines  upon  a  Whale,  which  had  come  ashore  in  a 
region  where  perhaps  food  was  none  too  plentiful.  '  It  was 
a  sorry  sight/  he  says,  '  to  see  a  pretty  young  woman  enter- 
ing the  belly  of  the  Whale,  then  gorging  herself  with 
blubber,  and  issuing  forth  anointed  from  head  to  foot, 
and  bearing  in  each  hand  a  trophy  of  the  delicacy  in 
question.' 

FAMILY   DELPHINIUM. 

NAB  WEAL  (Monodon  monoceros). 

Coloured  Plate  XXX.  Fig.  3. 

The  Narwhal,  which  is  now  limited  to  one  species, 
attains  a  length  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  feet.  In  the 
walrus  was  noted  an  exceptional  form  of  the  canine 
teeth,  which  in  the  case  of  the  left  tooth  of  the  Narwhal 


4i6  WHALES  AND   DOLPHINS 

is  still  more  abnormally  developed  into  a  long,  twisted, 
yellow  ivory  horn.  Occasionally  it  is  the  right  one  that 
thus  grows  to  a  length  of  perhaps  ten  feet ;  but  very 
rarely  does  the  creature  possess  two  horns.  Its  habitat 
is  restricted  to  the  Arctic  regions,  in  the  shallower  waters 
of  which  it  stirs  up  sluggish  fish  preparatory  to  despatch- 
ing them  with  its  sharply  pointed  horn. 

The  natives  of  the  frozen  North  believe  the  Narwhal 
is  simply  the  male  of  the  Beluga  or  White  Whale,  and 
save  for  the  horn  they  have  a  marked  resemblance  in 
structure.  But  the  Beluga  leaves  the  sea  to  pursue 
salmon  far  up  the  Alaskan  rivers,  which  the  Narwhal  is 
never  known  to  do. 

The  Narwhal  is  of  considerable  economic  importance, 
for  it  yields  an  oil  much  superior  to  that  of  the  Whale. 
A  tusk  of  ivory  eight  feet  or  more  in  length,  with  a 
basal  girth  of  seven  or  eight  inches,  is  of  no  little  value  ; 
it  would  be  doubly  so  but  that  throughout  its  length  the 
tusk  is  hollow. 

PORPOISE  (Phoccena  communis}. 

The  Porpoise,  five,  six,  or  seven  feet  in  length,  is 
common  in  the  North  Atlantic.  Often  off  the  British  coasts 
a  shoal  of  Porpoises  may  be  seen  frolicking  quite  near  to 
the  shore.  Passengers  on  board  ocean-going  liners  are 
always  interested  in  watching  the  sportive  '  black  pigs,'  as 
sailors  call  them.  As  they  race  along  the  side  of  the  ship 
they  seem  as  though  they  are  invested  with  something  very 
much  like  humour,  for  their  wide  mouths  appear  to  wear  a 
distinct  smile  as  they  rise  from  a  wave  to  throw  themselves 
into  the  air,  gambol  with  a  friend,  or  sink  again  with 
twinkling  eyes  brimful  of  laughter. 

The  flesh  of  the  Porpoise  is  a  useful  addition  to  the 
larder  in  various  regions.  At  one  time  it  was  a  standard 
dish  at  public  feasts  in  England.  Sailors,  however,  will  not 
eat  it  unless  necessity  compels.  The  animals  are  captured 
chiefly  for  their  oil,  and  the  skin  can  be  converted  into 
useful  leather.  The  so-called  porpoise  hide  that  is  so 
impervious  to  wet  is  more  often  the  skin  of  the  White 


THE  DOLPHIN  417 

Whale,  whose  length  of  sixteen  feet  affords  a  hide  well 
worth  tanning.  This  fish  hide  is  said  to  make  the  strongest 
leather  known.  It  serves  capitally  for  traces,  and  at  one 
time  the  Canadian  mail-bags  were  made  of  it ;  it  will  stand 
much  chafing,  and  hard  wear  makes  little  impression  on  it. 

DOLPHIN  (Delphinus  delphis). 
Coloured  Plate  XXX.  Fig.  5. 

The  Dolphin  in  appearance  more  closely  approaches  the 
fishes  than  any  other  of  the  Cetacean  order,  and  sailors 
often  mistake  for  it  the  brilliantly  coloured  fish,  the  Cory- 
phene,  which  feeds  chiefly  upon  flying  fish.  In  colour  the 
Dolphin  is  simply  black  above  and  white  below.  It  grows 
to  a  length  of  seven  or  eight  feet.  The  head  terminates  in 
a  long,  pointed,  beak-like  muzzle,  and  on  each  side  of  the 
jaw  are  from  thirty  to  fifty  teeth,  the  lower  of  which  under- 
lock  with  the  upper  ones  in  rat-trap  fashion. 

The  Dolphin  is  an  insatiable  fish-eater,  and  it  makes  fierce 
raids  upon  the  shoals  of  herrings,  pilchards,  and  other  fish 
that  abound  on  the  British  coasts.  It  has  a  cannibalistic 
habit  that  is  perhaps  practised  by  no  other  Cetacean.  Any 
one  of  their  number  that  is  wounded  is  at  once  torn  in 
pieces  and  devoured  by  its  voracious  companions. 

The  flesh  of  the  Dolphin  is  white,  full  of  flavour,  and 
quite  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  cod,  but  for  some  undis- 
covered reason  it  is  sometimes  poisonous.  No  examination 
or  application  of  any  test  will  assist  in  marking  any  undesir- 
able fish  ;  it  can  only  be  discovered  when  it  is  too  late,  and 
the  swollen  face  and  distorted  features  appear  to  prove  to 
the  unfortunate  that  he  made  an  unwise  choice. 

Possibly  in  eating  the  Delphinus  globiceps,  or  bottle-nosed 
variety,  there  is  less  risk.  The  Faroe  islanders  in  particular 
catch  thousands  of  them.  After  the  removal  of  the  fat, 
which  is  rendered  into  oil,  the  flesh  is  cut  into  strips  as 
long  as  an  arm,  which  are  hung  in  and  about  the  houses  to 
dry.  The  drying  process  may  prove  a  sore  olfactory  trial  to 
visitors,  but  to  the  islanders  the  smell  is  the  harbinger  of 
solid  creature  comforts  that  they  cannot  afford  to  despise. 

28 


4i8  WHALES  AND  DOLPHINS 

KILLER   WHALE   (Orca  gladiator). 
Coloured  Plate  XXX.  Fig.  4. 

Of  all  the  Dolphin  family,  the  Killer  or  Grampus  is  one  of 
the  largest,  and  at  the  same  time  easily  the  most  ferocious. 
Though  it  seldom  exceeds  twenty  feet  in  length,  the  Orca 
makes  relentless  war  upon  its  relations,  being  the  only 
member  of  the  Whale  family  that  habitually  feeds  upon 
marine  mammals.  That  the  Beluga  should  fall  a  prey  to  it 
may  not  be  a  matter  for  surprise,  but  a  party  of  half  a  dozen 
killers  will  attack  a  Greenland  Whale,  whose  bulk  may  be 
a  hundred  times  that  of  any  one  of  these  wolves  of  the 
ocean.  In  the  course  of  but  a  few  minutes  the  leviathan 
will  be  reduced  to  a  broken,  palpitating  island  of  helpless 
flesh.  Having  disabled  their  gigantic  prey  the  ferocious 
miniature  Whales  enter  the  mouth  of  the  giant  to  make 
feast  upon  its  soft,  succulent  tongue.  In  an  incredibly 
short  time  hosts  of  sea-birds  above,  and  myriads  of  fishes 
below,  in  their  office  of  ocean  scavengers,  set  about  the  task 
of  disintegrating  ^  the  mighty  mass  that  was  so  recently 
instinct  with  life.* 


Plate   XXXI. 


5.  Great  Anteater 


Chapter  XIV 

ORDER  IX.— EDENTATA 
(TOOTHLESS    ANIMALS) 


General  description  of  the  Edentata— Three- 
toed  Sloth— Two-toed  Sloth— Great  Ant-eater 
— Aard-vark — Pangolin — Armadillo. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


Order  IX. — Edentata 
(Toothless  Animals) 

THE  Edentates  differ  in  many  points  of  their  structure 
and  still  more  widely  in  habits,  but  in  respect  of 
their  teeth  they  are  easily  in  agreement.  Some  of  them  are 
absolutely  toothless,  and  those  that  can  boast  of  any  teeth  at 
all  never  have  any  in  the  front  of  the  jaws,  and  those  at  the 
back  are  usually  of  more  or  less  imperfect  formation, 
without  enamel  and  destitute  of  roots.  The  order  consists 
of  but  two  tribes,  and  the  existing  species  are  far  from 
numerous.  The  Tardigrada, 
or  slow-paced  tribe,  con- 
tains only  the  Sloths ;  the 
Effodentia,  or  diggers,  in- 
cludes Anteaters,  Armadillos, 
and  Pangolins. 


FAMILY   BRADY- 
PODID.E   (SLOTHS). 

The  legs  of  animals  are 
put  to  a  variety  of  uses — 
running,  jumping,  swim- 
ming, digging,  or  as  hands 
to  seize  prey  and  to  convey 
food  to  the  mouth.  The 
Sloth  possesses  four  legs, 
but  does  not  run,  nor  leap, 


FORE   FOOT  OF  THE  THREE-TOED 
SLOTH. 


421 


422  TOOTHLESS  ANIMALS 

rarely  swims,  and  never  digs.  Of  all  the  animals  of  creation, 
the  Sloths  only  hang.  They  live  wholly  in  trees,  not  upon 
the  branches,  but  under  them.  In  Waterton's  own  words, 
'the  Sloth  moves  suspended  from  a  branch,  he  rests  sus- 
pended from  it,  and  he  sleeps  suspended  from  it.' 

Quite  naturally  one  would  infer  that  to  lead  such  a  life 
the  Sloths  must  possess  very  uncommon  muscular  powers. 
A  glance  at  the  accompanying  illustration  will  show  that 
strength  does  not  of  necessity  enter  into  the  question.  The 
claws  are  of  enormous  dimensions,  converting  the  feet  into 
perfect  hooks.  '  When  therefore  the  Sloth  has  hitched  the 
claws  over  a  branch,  no  further  exertion  is  required,  the 
suspension  being  purely  mechanical/ 

On  the  ground  the  Sloth  does  not  belie  its  name,  for  the 
longer  fore-arms  and  the  huge  incurved  claws  are  ill- 
adapted  for  walking.  It  can  only  make  slow  and  painful 
progression  by  digging  the  claws  into  any  little  depression 
in  the  ground  to  assist  in  pulling  itself  along.  Early 
naturalists  considered  that  life  must  be  a  burden  to  the 
strange  creature.  But  among  the  trees  the  Sloth  is  in  its 
element ;  it  may  be  the  worst  walker  among  mammals,  but 
it  is  certainly  one  of  the  best  climbers. 

THREE-TOED   SLOTH   (Brddypus  tridactylus). 
Coloured  Plate  XXXI.  Fig.  2. 

Of  the  several  species  of  Sloths  the  best-known  is  the 
Three-Toed  Sloth,  or  Ai,  the  latter  name  being  derived 
from  the  low  plaintive  cry  of  the  animal,  which  somewhat 
resembles  that  syllable.  It  is  a  native  of  Brazil.  It  is  but 
two  feet  in  length,  but  its  shaggy  coat  gives  it  the  appear- 
ance of  a  much  larger  animal.  The  fur  is  coarse,  mainly 
brownish  grey  in  colour,  except  between  the  shoulders  of 
the  male,  where  is  a  narrow  oval  patch  of  black  hair 
fringed  with  yellow.  This  patch  is  exactly  like  the  scorched 
effect  which  the  application  of  a  hot  iron  would  produce, 
and  at  first  sight  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  it  is  not  of 
artificial  origin. 

Owing  to  a  vegetable  alga  which  grows  on  the  hairs,  the 


THE  SLOTHS  423 

coat  of  the  Sloth  very  often  assumes  a  greenish  tint,  which 
assists  to  make  it  not  easily  distinguishable  from  its  natural 
surroundings.  It  is  remorselessly  hunted  by  the  natives, 
who  regard  its  flesh  as  a  great  delicacy.  Its  natural  enemies 
are  the  serpents,  but  with  its  terrible  claws  it  is  enabled  to 
show  fight  to  good  purpose.  The  vitality  of  the  sloth  in 
particular  is  remarkable  in  its  approach  to  that  of  the 
reptiles.  It  can  fast  for  a  period  exceeding  a  month,  and 
appears  to  be  impervious  to  doses  of  poison  that  would 
speedily  prove  fatal  in  the  case  of  at  least  most  mammals. 
The  Sloth  suckles  its  young  like  ordinary  quadrupeds,  the 
young  one  adhering  to  the  body  of  the  parent  until  it  can 
take  care  of  itself.  The  food  of  the  animal  is  restricted  to 


SKELETON  OF  THE  SLOTH. 

leaves,  shoots,  and  fruits,  the  moisture  of  which  obviates  the 
necessity  of  drinking. 

In  one  other  particular  the  anatomy  of  the  Sloth  is 
further  modified  to  suit  its  peculiar  mode  of  life.  Up  to 
this  stage  in  the  mammal  world  it  has  been  the  invariable 
rule  that  there  should  be  exactly  seven  bones  in  the  neck. 
The  Sloth  possesses  nine  vertebrae,  which  enable  it  to  twist 
its  head  completely  round  in  either  direction  while  the 
body  remains  motionless. 

The  Two-Toed  Sloth  (Cholcepus  didactylus)  is  a  larger 
animal  than  the  preceding  species.  When  rolled  up  asleep 
it  looks  more  like  a  bundle  of  hay  than  a  living  creature. 
The  lack  of  a  toe  only  refers  to  the  fore  feet,  and  in  other 


424  TOOTHLESS  ANIMALS 

respects  the  species  too  closely  resemble  each  other  to  call 
for  separate  description. 


FAMILY   MYRMECOPHAGID/E   (ANT-EATERS). 

The  animals  of  this  family  are  marked  by  long,  thick  hair 
and  a  long  tail,  which  in  some  species  is  prehensile.  The 
fore  and  hind  limbs  are  of  an  equal  length.  All  Ant-eaters 
are  quite  devoid  of  teeth.  In  the  long,  tapering  snout  is 
a  slender,  wormlike  tongue,  which  is  remarkably  extensile 
and  covered  with  a  glutinous  saliva,  to  which  the  animal's 
insect  food  adheres.  Another  distinguishing  feature  is  the 
heavily  clawed  toes  of  the  fore  feet,  the  third  of  which  is 
better  armed  than  the  others. 


GREAT   ANT-EATER    (Myrmecophaga  jubata). 
Coloured  Plate  XXXI.  Fig.  5. 

The  Great  Ant-eater,  Ant  Bear,  or  Tamanoir,  is  a  native 
of  South  America.  It  attains  a  length  of  four  feet,  with 
a  tail  three  parts  as  long.  The  hair  is  stiff  and  bristly, 
mainly  ashy  grey  mingled  with  black,  while  there  is  a 
conspicuous  black  stripe  edged  with  white  across  the 
shoulders.  The  tail  is  remarkably  bushy  and  appears  to 
form  the  greater  part  of  the  animal.  Owing  to  the  length 
of  the  claws,  the  Tamanoir  cannot  walk  on  the  soles  of  the 
fore  feet,  and,  although  there  is  not  the  same  hindrance 
in  the  case  of  the  hind  feet,  its  gait  is  extremely  awkward. 

The  Tamanoir  is  exclusively  an  insect-eater,  preferably 
termites  and  ants  and  their  larvae.  Termites,  or  white  ants, 
as  they  are  often  wrongly  called,  are  the  most  destructive  of 
insects,  nothing  except  metal  being  able  to  resist  their  jaws. 
But  the  Ant-eater  with  its  claws  assails  their  sugar-loaf 
earthen  nests,  which  are  strong  enough  to  support  the 
weight  of  wild  cattle.  Very  speedily  the  contents  are  laid 
bare  and  the  Ant-eater  protrudes  its  tongue  to  a  length  of 
over  a  foot,  and  proceeds  to  lick  up  its  insect  delicacy. 

Notwithstanding  the  peculiarly  cunning  expression  of  its 


THE  AARD-VARK  425 

eye,  this  strange-looking  animal  is  perfectly  harmless,  except 
when  it  is  roused  to  defend  itself.  Its  sole  method  of 
fighting  is  to  seize  its  antagonist  in  its  powerful  arms, 
seeking  to  drive  its  claws  into  its  body.  Dogs  are  often 
killed  in  this  manner,  and  it  is  recorded  that  hunters  have 
succumbed  to  the  animal's  fierce  clasp,  in  which  the  terrible 
claws  have  penetrated  to  the  heart.  It  is  sometimes  asserted 
that  the  Tamanoir  is  a  match  for  the  jaguar,  a  statement 
rather  easily  disposed  of  when  one  remembers  that  the 
American  '  tiger'  could  despatch  the  slow-going  animal 
by  a  blow  of  its  paw,  to  say  nothing  of  one  bite  with  its 
terrible  teeth. 

Ant-eaters,  in  common  with  the  Sloths,  are  exceedingly 
difficult  to  kill.  The  tough  skin  resists  an  ordinary  small 
hunting-knife,  and  battering  the  skull  with  heavy  stones 
will  do  no  more  than  temporarily  stun  the  animals. 
Even  in  its  native  regions  the  Great  Ant-eater  is  nowhere 
common,  and  it  is  nocturnal,  like  all  Edentates,  which 
increases  the  difficulty  of  learning  some  of  its  habits.  It  is 
a  lonely  animal,  spending  the  daytime  folded  up  in  the  tall 
grass.  Its  single  young  one  is  carried  about  on  the  parent's 
back  for  a  long  time,  very  often  until  another  is  born  to 
displace  it. 


FAMILY  ORYCTEROPID^. 

AARD-VARK  (Orycteropus  capensis). 
Plate  XLI.  Fig.  2. 

The  Aard-vark  in  its  general  build,  long,  viscid  tongue,  and 
burrowing  claws,  possesses  the  typical  characteristics  of  the 
Myrmecophaga.  The  Great  Ant-eater  is  a  strange-looking 
creature  that,  even  with  its  coloured  coat  and  its  luxuriant 
tail,  can  lay  no  claims  to  beauty ;  but  the  Aard-vark,  with 
hair  as  scanty  as  many  species  of  pig  and  with  a  tapering 
cylindrical  tail,  has  more  the  appearance  of  a  reptile  than 
a  mammal.  The  ears  are  exceedingly  large,  the  long,  narrow 
snout  is  decidedly  porcine,  and  but  for  its  arched  back 
would  convey  a  tolerable  notion  of  a  short-legged  pig.  The 


426  TOOTHLESS  ANIMALS 

Boers,  indeed,  gave  the  name  <  Earth-pig'  to  the  Cape 
Aard-vark,  not  only  on  account  of  its  appearance,  but 
also  because  of  its  confirmed  habit  of  deep  burrowing. 
To  complete  the  appropriateness  of  the  name,  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  the  hindquarters  of  the  animal  are  cured  in 
the  same  manner  as  hams,  and  are  almost,  if  not  quite, 

equally  esteemed. 

Although  the  Aard- 
vark  does  not  possess 
such  claws  as  the 
Tamanoir,  it  is  a  capital 
burrower,  and  in  an 

SKULL  o7THE  CAPE  ANT-EATER.  incredibly  short  time  it 

can  bury  its  body  even 

in  sun-baked  earth.  During  the  day  it  remains  in  its 
burrow,  but  at  night  it  sets  out  to  attack  the  nests  of  ants 
and  termites.  It  is  an  exceedingly  shy  and  retiring  animal, 
and  for  a  long  time  naturalists  could  obtain  but  little 
definite  knowledge  of  its  habits.  An  Ethiopian  species 
possesses  a  still  longer  head  and  ears  and  a  thicker  coating 
of  hair.  It  gives  birth  to  but  a  single  young  one  at  a 
time,  which  it  suckles  for  quite  a  long  period. 


FAMILY   MANIOC   (PANGOLINS). 
PANGOLIN  (Manis  longicaudd). 
Coloured  Plate  XXXI.  Fig.  3. 

The  Pangolins  are  restricted  to  Asia  and  Africa.  The 
figured  specimen  represents  the  characteristics  of  the  species 
found  in  either  continent.  They  are  armoured,  not  with 
plates,  but  with  overlapping  scales  like  the  tiles  upon  the 
roof  of  a  house  ;  or,  as  a  writer  picturesquely  expresses  it, 
they  resemble  '  an  animated  spruce-fir  cone  furnished  with 
a  head  and  legs/ 

These  scaly  Ant-eaters  are  toothless,  and  possess  the 
typical  extensile  tongue  of  the  Edentates,  and  their  feet 
are  armed  with  excellent  burrowing  claws.  Ants  are  their 
staple  food.  Stones  are  very  often  found  in  the  stomach  of 


THE  ARMADILLO  427 

the  Pangolin.  It  may  be  that  in  the  dark  they  are  inad- 
vertently swept  up  by  the  viscid  tongue  ;  but  it  may  equally 
be  that  they  are  swallowed  purposely  to  serve  as  grinders  in 
the  gizzard-like  stomach. 

The  Phatagin  (Manis  tetraddctyla),  a  West  African  species, 
has  a  long  tail,  while  the  Pangolin  of  India  (Manis 
penddctyla)  has  a  short  one.  One  of  the  latter  species, 
kept  as  a  pet,  endangered  the  foundations  of  the  house  by 
its  constant  burrowing.  Desiring  to  kill  it,  the  owner  fired 
at  it  with  a  Colt's  revolver.  The  ball  failed  to  penetrate  the 
armour,  only  knocking  the  animal  over  and  causing  it 
to  roll  itself  into  a  ball.  A  second  shot  recoiled  upon 
the  firer  and  bruised  him.  Eventually  he  despatched  the 
animal  by  inserting  a  dagger  between  the  scales  and 
driving  it  home  with  a  mallet. 


FAMILY   DASYPODID^E   (ARMADILLOS). 

ARMADILLO  (Dasypus  sexcinctus). 

Coloured  Plate  XXXI.  Fig.  i. 

There  are  several  species  of  Armadillo,  all  of  which  are 
found  in  tropical  or  sub-tropical  America.  A  description  of 
any  one  species  will  practically  serve  for  the  whole  family. 
They  are  comparatively  small  animals,  very  distinctively 


SKELETON  OF  THE  ARMADILLO. 


clothed  with  plates  of  bony  armour,  in  the  centre  of  the 
body  so  arranged  as  to  permit  sufficient  freedom  of  move- 
ment to  allow  the  animal  to  roll  itself  up  for  the  protect- 
tion  of  the  softer  under  parts.  One  of  the  smaller  species, 


428  TOOTHLESS  ANIMALS 

the  Apara,  or  Bolita  (Tatusia  tricinta),  can  thus  defy  even  a 
jaguar  who  desires  a  toothsome  morsel. 

The  Armadillo  has  an  extensile  tongue,  with  which  it 
gathers  up  ants  and  other  insects.  It  exhibits  great  adroit- 
ness in  capturing  a  snake,  sawing  the  reptile  in  pieces  with 
the  jagged  edges  of  its  armour.  But  most  of  the  family  are 
omnivorous,  welcoming  alike  animal  or  vegetable  food, 
fresh  or  putrid. 

For  its  size  the  Armadillo,  or  Poyu,  as  it  is  also  called, 
has  powerful  claws,  and  its  burrowing  powers  are  corre- 
spondingly great.  The  animal  is  a  natural  scavenger  and 
renders  good  service  in  the  removal  of  decaying  animal 
matter.  In  South  America  a  dead  horse  on  the  plains  is  no 
uncommon  circumstance.  The  Armadillo  will  enter  into 
the  carcass  and  make  its  home  on  the  spot  as  long  as  there 
is  anything  left  to  eat.  The  natives  acknowledge  the 
animal's  good  services  in  such  a  case,  but  they  wish  it 
would  manifest  a  little  more  discrimination,  and  then  it 
would  not  be  necessary  for  them  to  line  the  graves  of  their 
dead  with  boards  to  keep  the  scavenging  burrower  from 
feeding  on  the  corpses  of  the  departed. 

Armadillos  of  whatever  kind  live  in  burrows  and  are 
mainly  nocturnal.  There  are  rarely  more  than  four  young 
ones  at  a  birth,  and  they  are  born  fully  armoured,  but  with 
the  plates  in  a  soft  and  flexible  condition. 


Chapter  XV 

ORDER   X.— MARSUPIALIA 
(POUCHED  ANIMALS) 


General  description  of  the  Marsupialia— Great 
Grey  Kangaroo — Tree  Kangaroo — Wallaby — 
Rat  Kangaroo — Family  Phalangitidae :  Spotted 
Cuscus — Flying  Phalanger— Koala — Wombat 
— Bandicoot — Family  Dasyuridae  :  Tasmanian 
Devil  or  Ursine  Dasyure — Tasmanian  Wolf  or 
Thylacine— Phascologales— Banded  Ant-eater 
— Pouched  Mole— Opossum. 


Plate  XXXH. 


.Kangaroo 


CHAPTER  XV 

Order  X. — Marsupialia 
(Pouched  Animals) 

HT^HE  animals  of  this  order  show  such  remarkable 
1  modifications  of  structure  that  they  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  those  of  other  divisions  of  the  animal 
world.  The  Latin  word  marsupium  means  a  pouch  or  bag, 
which  is  the  most  marked  feature  of  nearly  all  the  female 
Marsupials,  which  originally  caused  them  to  be  called 
'  Purse-bearing  animals.'  Strangely  enough,  some  of  the 
males  possess  a  pouch  that  can  by  no  means  be  called 
rudimentary.  The  skin  of  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen  of 
the  female  is  doubled  upwards  in  a  fold  to  form  a  pouch  in 
which  are  the  teats.  Into  this  receptacle  the  young  are 
introduced  while  they  are  in  a  very  immature  state, 
and  there  they  remain  until  they  are  able  to  shift  for 
themselves. 

Reference  to  the  skeleton  of  the  Kangaroo,  or  the 
Opossum,  will  show  the  remarkable  prong-like  marsupial 
bones  projecting  upwards  and  forwards  from  the  pelvis. 
Their  purpose  is  to  prevent  the  weight  of  the  young 
pressing  unduly  upon  the  abdomen  of  the  parent,  which 
would  incommode,  if  not  prevent,  rapid  progression.  The 
pouch  is  modified  in  various  members  of  the  order ;  in  some 
cases  it  opens  backwards ;  in  others  it  is  the  merest  rudi- 
mentary skin  fold ;  and  in  at  least  one  instance  it  is  replaced 
by  but  a  patch  of  longer  hair. 

The  various  families  of  the  Marsupials  differ  very  con- 
siderably in  their  diet.  Many  of  them  are  strictly  herbi- 

431 


432 


POUCHED  ANIMALS 


vorous,  some  of  them  are  insectivorous,  and  more  than  a  few 
are  entirely  carnivorous.  It  practically  follows  in  conse- 
quence that  there  will  be  more  or  less  marked  differences 
in  various  of  their  organs,  notably  those  of  progression, 
prehension,  and  digestion.  In  one  respect  the  Marsupials 
are  upon  the  same  footing  :  they  possess  a  very  simple  type 
of  brain  with  a  corresponding  low  degree  of  intelligence. 


SKELETON  OF  THE  KANGAROO. 

Apart  from  their  own  special  and  peculiar  characteristics, 
it  would  not  be  difficult  to  allocate  most  of  the  Marsupials 
to  various  other  orders.  The  Kangaroo,  in  its  head  and 
eyes,  wonderfully  resembles  the  Deer  family,  and  it  is  said 
actually  to  ruminate  sometimes  ;  the  Wombat  is  not  unlike 
the  Marmot ;  the  Bandicoot  and  Banded  Ant-eater  closely 
approach  the  Insectivora ;  the  Opossum  and  Phalanger 
are  practically  arboreal  Rodents,  in  some  cases  approxi- 


THE  KANGAROO  433 

mating  to  the  Flying  Squirrel ;  and  the  Tasmanian  Wolf, 
Tasmanian  Devil,  and  the  native  Cats,  in  habits  and  food, 
might  easily  pass  for  typical  carnivores. 

The  Marsupials  are  not  only  distinguished  from  the  rest 
of  the  animal  world  by  fundamental  structural  differences, 
they  are  equally  separated  by  geographical  location.  Ex- 
cept for  the  American  Opossums,  the  whole  order  is 
restricted  to  Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Guinea,  and  a  few 
adjacent  islands,  and  save  only  a  few  small  Rodents, 
Australia  possesses  no  other  indigenous  animals. 


FAMILY    MACROPODID.E    (KANGAROOS). 

GREAT   GREY   KANGAROO  (Macropus  giganteus). 

Coloured  Plate  XXXII.  Fig.  6. 

In  this  family,  whose  generic  name  means  '  long-footed/ 
we  find  the  largest  as  well  as  the  smallest  of  the  Marsupials, 
suggestive  of  reflections  of  the  jumping  Rodents,  such  as 
the  jerboa  and  the  chinchilla.  In  many  respects  the  general 
form  of  the  Kangaroo  is  very  much  like  that  of  the  jerboa, 
the  hind  legs  being  exceedingly  long. 

The  Great  Grey  Kangaroo  is  the  most  familiar  of  twenty- 
four  known  species.  A  full-grown  male  attains  a  length 
of  five  feet  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the 
tail,  and  weighs  anything  from  a  hundred  and  fifty  to  two 
hundred  pounds.  The  neck  is  thin  and  finely  propor- 
tioned, and  from  it  the  body  expands  in  pear-shaped 
fashion  to  the  strong  hindquarters.  The  hind  legs,  three 
and  a  half  feet  in  length,  are  usually  the  only  limbs  used 
for  progression  ;  the  fore  legs  are  only  half  as  long,  and 
are  used  chiefly  as  hands,  the  food  being  taken  with  them 
and  held  to  the  mouth.  The  fore  feet  each  end  in  five 
toes,  all  fitted  with  strong,  curved  nails.  The  hind  feet 
usually  have  four  toes,  one  of  which  is  nearly  a  foot  in 
length  and  armed  with  a  particularly  large  and  solid  nail 
that  renders  the  toe  a  powerful  and  formidable  claw.  The 
teeth  of  the  Kangaroo  are  interesting  in  their  structure,  the 
chief  points  being  the  singularly  long,  flattened,  and  pro- 

29 


434 


POUCHED  ANIMALS 


jecting  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw,  the  absence  of  canine 
teeth,  and  the  peculiarly  ridged  surface  of  the  molars. 

The  tail  of  the  Kangaroo— thick,  strong,  and  tapering— is 
over  three  feet  in  length  and  a  foot  in  circumference  at  its 
base.  It  acts  as  a  supplemental  limb  when  the  animal 
assumes  an  erect  or  sitting  posture,  with  the  hind  legs 
forming  an  excellent  tripod.  It  is  also  of  use  as  a  balance 
in  leaping,  and  as  a  weapon  it  can  deal  a  blow  capable  of 
breaking  a  man's  leg.  When  feeding,  or  walking  short  dis- 
tances on  all  fours,  the  Kangaroo  is  exceedingly  clumsy  ; 
but  when  alarmed  it  travels  at  a  great  speed  in  a  series  of 
leaps,  of  as  much  as  twenty  feet,  and  clearing  with  ease 
obstacles  nine  and  ten  feet  in  height. 

The  woolly  fur  is  usually  brown  in  colour,  lightening  to 
grey,  especially  on  the  under  side  ;  the  tail  is  tipped  with 

black.      The    skin    when 
tanned   forms  a  soft  and 
/     x  durable  shoe  leather. 

No  mammal  in  any  of 
the  orders  previously 
described  is  produced  at 
birth  in  such  an  unde- 
veloped state  as  the 
TEETH  OF  THE  GREAT  KANGAROO.  young  Kangaroo.  Pro- 

fessor   Owen,  from   close 

observation  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  described  the 
young  marsupial  as  resembling  more  than  anything  else  an 
earthworm  in  the  colour  and  transparency  of  its  integu- 
ment. Yet  though  little  more  than  an  inch  in  length,  it 
breathed  slowly  but  strongly,  while  it  adhered  to  one  of  the 
four  nipples  to  which  the  mother  applies  her  young  with 
her  mouth.  The  newly  born  little  animal  is  too  weak  to 
obtain  milk  by  sucking.  This  difficulty  is  met  by  the 
parent  contracting  a  muscle  of  the  mammary  gland  to 
inject  the  liquid  into  the  mouth  of  her  progeny  until  it 
gains  sufficient  strength  to  feed  itself. 

There  is  only  one  young  one  at  a  birth.  Before  it  leaves 
the  pouch  it  may  be  seen  poking  out  its  head  to  nibble  the 
herbage  among  which  the  mother  is  moving.  Even  after  it 
is  able  to  make  fair  progression  it  will  fly  to  the  pouch  when 


THE  KANGAROO  435 

danger  threatens,  and  it  is  remarkable  how  adroitly  an  old 
doe  will  gather  up  her  young  one  while  she  herself  is  in 
full  flight. 

Big  males  are  called  by  the  colonials  '  Boomer/ '  Forester/ 
or  '  Old  Man.'  A  female,  especially  before  she  has  borne 
young,  is  called  a  '  Flying  Doe ' ;  while  a  young  one  carried 
by  the  mother  is  known  as  '  Joey.' 

A  Kangaroo  hunt  is  an  exciting  sport,  in  which  the 
animal  displays  astonishing  pace  and  staying  power. 
British  foxhounds  would  be  useless  in  the  chase,  for 
which  are  engaged  a  special  breed  of  greyhounds  called 
Kangaroo  dogs. 

All  Kangeroos  are  timid,  and  at  the  least  token  of  danger 
seek  safety  in  flight ;  but  when  brought  to  bay  a  full-grown 
male  is  no  mean  opponent.  Woe  betide  the  dog  that  comes 
within  reach  of  the  great  claw,  for  its  hunting  days  will  end 
with  one  stroke  of  the  knife-like  weapon.  If  the  '  Boomer ' 
can  reach  water  he  will  enter  it  up  to  his  shoulders,  and 
await  the  approach  of  a  dog,  which  he  will  seize  in  his 
fore  paws  and  hold  under  water  until  it  is  drowned.  Even 
a  man  will  come  to  grief  badly  if  the  desperate  animal  can 
take  hold  of  him. 

The  female  displays  less  powers  of  flight  and  less 
courage  at  close  quarters.  She  always  seeks  cover,  and 
by  powerful  leaps  to  the  side  endeavours  to  throw  the 
dogs  off  the  scent.  When  very  hard  pressed  she  will  fling 
her  young  one  into  the  bushes  as  she  hurtles  along. 
This  action  is  often  viewed  as  an  effort  at  self-preserva- 
tion— in  sailor  parlance  'lightening  the  ship/  Upon  the 
other  hand,  it  may  be  only  evidence  of  the  mother's 
affection  for  her  offspring,  merely  a  desire  to  give  it  an 
opportunity  of  escape,  when  for  herself  there  remains  no 
single  loophole. 

The  Great  Grey  Kangaroo,  like  all  its  near  relations,  is 
entirely  herbivorous.  It  is  gregarious,  and  herds  of  from 
thirty  to  fifty  made  inroads  on  grass  pastures  that  greatly 
displeased  the  early  Australian  sheep-farmers.  Apart  from 
this,  the  flesh  of  the  Kangaroo  is  greatly  esteemed ;  in  fact, 
the  animal  was  formerly  to  the  aborigines  what  the  bison 
was  to  the  red  man  or  the  seal  still  is  to  the  Eskimo.  The 


436  POUCHED  ANIMALS 

natives  converted  the  skin  into  sacks  in  which  to  carry  the 
little  impedimenta  with  which  the  benighted  savage  troubles 
to  load  himself ;  the  bones  served  for  rude  needles,  and  the 
tendons,  especially  of  the  tail,  provided  string  or  thread. 
The  great  cutting  nail  of  the  hind  foot  made  a  very 
serviceable  spear  tip. 

The  flesh  of  all  the  herbivorous  marsupials  is  uniformly 
good  for  food.  Of  the  larger  Kangaroos,  the  forequarters 
are  usually  the  perquisite  of  the  dogs  that  have  run  the 
quarry  down  ;  but  from  the  hindquarters  may  be  cut  some 
very  fine  steaks.  Cooked  in  the  same  manner  as  venison 
collops,  they  are  little  inferior  to  the  flesh  of  the  deer.  But 
the  most  highly  prized  part  is  the  tail,  which  in  the  case 
of  a  '  Boomer '  will  weigh  as  much  as  twelve  pounds.  It 
makes  a  soup  that  causes  the  best  oxtail  to  take  a  very 
decided  second  place. 

The  Great  Grey  Kangaroo  is  a  plain  and  forest  dweller, 
but  other  species  are  found  even  on  the  snowy  summits 
of  the  Australian  mountains.  The  Woolly,  or  Red 
Kangaroo  (Macropus  rufus),  is  slightly  larger  than  the 
Great  Grey.  It  has  a  naked  face,  and  inhabits  rocky 
districts,  but  in  build  and  general  habits  it  presents  no 
points  worthy  of  separate  notice,  a  remark  which  applies 
equally  to  several  other  of  the  larger  species. 

The  Tree  Kangaroos,  found  in  New  Guinea  and  Northern 
Queensland,  form  a  distinct  and  remarkable  group  (Plate 
XLIII.  Fig.  i).  In  size  they  are  only  about  one-third  as 
large  as  the  foregoing ;  there  is  no  great  difference  in  the 
length  of  the  fore  and  hind  legs,  and  there  is  no  markedly 
prominent  toe.  Though  it  was  long  doubted,  the  fact  is 
established  beyond  all  question  that  these  animals  climb 
trees.  It  may  be  that  they  adopted  an  arboreal  habit 
in  order  to  obtain  better  food  than  existed  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  for  they  possess  no  special  modi- 
fication of  limbs  to  enable  them  to  climb  trees  other  than 
clumsily. 

Kangaroos  are  easily  domesticated.  They  thrive  well  in 
England,  where  the  climate  is  more  favourable  than  in 
some  of  their  native  regions.  At  Tring  Park,  Lord 
Rothschild's  estate,  troops  of  the  graceful  animals  may 


PLATE  XLIII. 


i.     TREE   KANGAROO.  2.     RED-NECKED   WALLABY. 

(See  page  437) 


(Photo  W.  Saville-Kent,  F.Z.S.) 


(Phoio  W.  S.  Berridge,  F.Z.S. 


PLATE  XLIV. 


i.     SPOTTED    CUSCUS. 

(See  page  439) 


2.     RAT    KANGAROO. 

(See  page  438) 


(Photos  W.  S.  Bcrridge,  F.Z.S.). 


THE  WALLABY  437 

be  seen,  at  least  as  happy  as  though  they  were  in   the 
bush  of  the  great  Southern  Continent. 


WALLABY. 

Under  the  colonial  and  unscientific  name  of  Wallaby 
are  included  numerous  species  of  the  smaller  and  brighter 
coloured  Kangaroos.  Any  differences  in  their  structure 
are  either  too  trifling  or  too  technical  for  discussion  in  a 
rather  elementary  and  chatty  account  of  animal  life.  In- 
habiting the  dense  scrub,  various  species  are  styled  Brush 
Kangaroos,  the  largest  of  which,  the  Red-necked  Wallaby 
(Macropus  ruficollis),  Plate  XLIII.  Fig.  2,  is  about  forty 
inches  long  in  the  body,  with  a  tail  of  thirty  inches.  Their 
leaping  powers  are  little  less  than  those  of  the  greater 
Kangaroos. 

Of  various  other  species  classed  as  Small  Wallabies, 
some  of  which  are  the  size  of  a  rabbit,  the  '  Padamelon ' 
(Macropus  theditis),  with  a  body  twenty-six  inches  long,  is 
perhaps  the  commonest,  especially  in  New  South  Wales  and 
Victoria. 

The  Rock  Wallabies  inhabit  the  rugged  and  more  arid 
regions.  The  largest  of  them,  the  Yellow-footed  Rock 
Wallaby  (Petrogale  xanthopus),  is  the  gaudiest  of  the 
Kangaroo  tribe.  The  fur  on  the  back  is  principally  grey, 
with  a  very  definite  black  streak  running  from  the  top  of 
the  head  between  the  ears  to  the  middle  of  the  back.  Above 
the  eye  is  a  yellow  spot,  and  below  it  appears  a  white  stripe 
with  a  similar  one  from  the  elbow  to  the  hip.  The  chin 
and  under  parts  are  white.  The  ears  and  the  lower 
portions  of  the  limbs  are  yellow,  and  on  the  tail  are 
alternate  brown  and  yellow  rings.  The  Short-eared  Rock 
Wallaby  (Petrogale  brachyotis)  is  sufficiently  described  in  its 
name. 

The  Hare  Wallabies,  in  size  and  appearance  and  not  a 
few  of  their  habits,  somewhat  resemble  the  common  hare, 
and,  like  that  animal,  their  flesh  is  delicious.  A  ' Padamelon' 
of  twelve  or  fourteen  pounds  in  weight,  cooked  like  a  hare, 
is  a  dish  to  satisfy  the  most  fastidious  gourmand. 


438  POUCHED  ANIMALS 

BAT-KANGAROO  (Hypsiprymnus  rufescens}. 
Plate  XLIV.  Fig.  2. 

The  Potoroo,  of  which  there  are  several  species,  is 
generally  known  as  the  Rat-Kangaroo.  The  latter  is  not 
a  particularly  happy  name,  for,  though  the  fore  limbs  are 
proportionately  longer  and  the  hind  limbs  less  powerful, 
in  form  and  habits  the  little  animal  is  a  perfect  Kangaroo 
in  miniature.  The  chief  variations  lie  in  the  Potoroo's 
different  dentition,  its  narrower  fore  feet,  and  sometimes 
its  partially  prehensile  tail. 

Even  the  largest  Rat-Kangaroo  seldom  exceeds  the  size  of 
a  rabbit.  Some  of  them  are  clothed  with  dense  and  often 
beautiful  fur.  The  whole  of  the  nine  species  are  harmless 
and  timid  ;  they  are  nocturnal,  feeding  on  grass,  leaves, 
and  roots.  The  little  Potoroo  has  only  one  young  at  a 
birth,  and,  like  all  marsupials,  there  is  only  one  birth  during 
the  year.  If  a  similar  statement  could  be  made  concerning 
the  common  rat  it  would  cease  to  be  viewed  as  a  dangerous 
and  expensive  pest. 

Except  by  the  Australian  blacks,  the  Rat-Kangaroo  is 
little  used  as  food.  White  men  are  prejudiced  against  it 
by  its  popular  name,  although  in  reality  the  flesh  of  the 
Potoroo  is  not  unlike  that  of  rabbit. 

FAMILY   PHALANGITID.E   (PHALANGERS). 

The  Phalanger  family  includes  various  animals  of 
moderate  size  with  notably  common  features,  the  chief 
of  which,  as  the  name  implies,  is  the  union  of  the  second 
and  third  toes  of  the  hind  foot.  All  of  them  are  thickly 
clothed  with  short,  woolly  hair,  often  beautiful  in  colour 
and  rich  in  texture.  The  tail  is  usually  long  and  more  or 
less  prehensile  ;  in  many  cases  it  is  bushy,  but  sometimes 
hair  appears  only  at  the  base,  and  it  is  scaly  towards  the 
extremity.  The  fore  paws  are  strong  and  specially  adapted 
for  grasping  and  for  life  among  the  branches  of  trees,  where 
most  of  the  animals  spend  their  lives.  The  Phalangers 


THE   PHALANGERS  439 

are  nocturnal,  and  while  some  are  quite  herbivorous,  there 
are  others  with  carnivorous  inclinations. 


SPOTTED  OUSOUS  (Phalanger  maculatus). 
Plate  XLIV.  Fig.  i. 

Of  five  different  species  of  Cuscus,  usually  about  the  size 
of  the  common  cat,  the  Spotted  Cuscus  is  the  most  notice- 
able, if  only  for  the  male's  remarkably  handsome  coat.  Upon 
a  groundwork  of  yellowish  white  are  irregular  patches  of 
reddish  brown  and  black  ;  the  white  under  parts  are  often 
tinged  with  yellow  or  red,  while  the  head  and  limbs  are 
greyish  red.  Other  species  are  mainly  grey  and  black.  The 
Grey  Cuscus  (Phalanger  orientalis)  of  Amboyna,  Timor,  &c., 
was  the  first  Australasian  mammal  known  to  Europeans, 
having  been  discovered  and  described  as  early  as  the  open- 
ing years  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

To  return  to  the  Spotted  Cuscus.  Its  tail  has  the  terminal 
portion  completely  naked  ;  the  feet  are  furnished  with  strong 
curved  claws,  and  the  hind  ones,  further,  are  fitted  with 
fleshy  pads,  which  assist  stealthy  descent  upon  birds  and 
small  animals.  By  night  it  is  as  active  as  by  day  it 
is  dull  and  sleepy.  '  They  live  in  trees,'  says  Mr.  Wallace, 
1  feeding  upon  the  leaves,  of  which  they  devour  large  quan- 
tities. They  move  about  slowly,  and  are  difficult  to  kill, 
owing  to  the  thickness  of  their  fur  and  their  tenacity  of  life. 
A  heavy  charge  of  shot  will  often  lodge  in  the  skin  and  do 
them  no  harm,  and  even  breaking  the  spine  or  piercing  the 
brain  will  not  kill  them  for  hours/  As  the  animals  are 
slow  in  motion,  when  disturbed,  as  they  lie  coiled  up  in  the 
trees  in  the  day-time,  they  are  easily  caught  by  the  natives 
for  their  flesh  ;  and  but  for  the  rather  sparse  population  the 
Cuscus  would  speedily  be  exterminated. 

TRUE   PHALANGERS. 

The  True  Phalangers  are  usually  called  Opossums  in 
Australia.  They  differ  in  various  minor  details  from  the 


440  POUCHED  ANIMALS 

Cuscuses,  but  there  is  no  mistaking  the  long  tail,  which  is 
bushy  to  its  very  tip.  The  Vulpine  Phalanger  (Trichosurus 
vulpecula),  as  its  specific  name  implies,  is  fox-like  in  its 
general  appearance.  The  teeth  are  not  specially  character- 
istic, and  differ  considerably  in  the  various  genera.  The 
animal  can  exist  upon  vegetable  food,  but  it  is  fond  of 
insects,  small  reptiles,  and  eggs.  It  captures  birds  very 
much  in  the  same  fashion  as  does  the  lemur,  by  creeping 
noiselessly  upon  its  prey  and  seizing  it  while  it  is  asleep. 
The  Phalanger  always  commences  its  feast  by  crushing  the 
head  and  devouring  the  brain.  The  flesh  of  the  animal  has 
a  peculiar  camphorated  flavour,  the  result  of  the  camphor- 
perfumed  leaves  upon  which  it  feeds.  Nevertheless  it  is  a 
favourite  food  of  the  Australian  black  man,  and  the  sight  of 
an  '  Opossum '  will  shake  the  aborigine  out  of  his  accustomed 
lethargy,  and  inspire  him  even  to  fell  a  tree  rather  than 
forgo  his  prize. 

FLYING  PHALANGER  (Petaurus  taguanides). 
Coloured  Plate  XXXII.  Fig.  5. 

The  most  interesting  members  of  the  Phalanger  family 
are  the  Flying  Phalangers,  of  which  the  one  figured  is  the 
most  highly  developed  example.  The  distinguishing  feature 
is  a  hairy  membrane  or  fold  of  the  skin  which  extends  along 
the  flanks,  and  which  is  capable  of  being  used  as  a  parachute 
to  enable  the  animal  to  leap  great  distances,  after  the  fashion 
of  the  Colugo  and  the  Flying  Squirrel.  The  membrane, 
which  appears  along  both  fore  and  hind  legs,  does  not 
extend  beyond  the  latter.  Nor  does  it  include  the  long 
bushy  tail,  the  hair  of  which  is  arranged  to  render  it  useful 
as  a  support,  as  well  as  a  rudder  to  guide  the  animal  through 
the  air.  'When  chased  or  forced  to  flight,  it  ascends  to 
the  highest  branch  and  performs  the  most  enormous  leaps, 
sweeping  from  tree  to  tree  with  wonderful  address  ;  a  slight 
ascent  gives  its  body  an  impetus  which,  with  the  expansion 
of  the  membrane,  enables  it  to  pass  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance, always  ascending  a  little  at  the  extremity  of  the  leap  ; 
by  this  ascent  the  animal  is  prevented  from  receiving  the 


THE  KOALA  441 

shock  it  would  otherwise  sustain/  It  sweeps  from  tree  to 
tree  with  a  bewildering  rapidity,  but,  nevertheless,  its  move- 
ments cannot  be  described  as  true  flight,  any  more  than 
those  of  the  colugo,  polatouche,  or  anomalure  described 
in  earlier  chapters. 

In  the  Great  Flying  Phalanger  (Petauroides  volans),  an 
animal  with  a  body  twenty  inches  in  length,  the  flying 
membrane  is  considerably  reduced.  The  Pigmy  Flying 
Phalanger  (Acrobates  pygmcea)  is  only  three  inches  in 
length,  with  a  tail  longer  than  the  body.  Its  fur  is  long 
and  silky.  Notwithstanding  the  smallness  of  the  creature 
it  has  a  perfectly  developed  pouch.  The  tail  greatly  re- 
sembles a  feather  in  its  perfect  arrangement  of  the  hair  in 
two  opposite  fringes. 

KOALA   (Phascolarctus  dnereus}. 
Plate  XLVI.  Fig.  i. 

The  Koala  is  a  type  differing  so  widely  from  the  fore- 
going Phalangers  as  to  form  in  itself  a  separate  sub-family. 
It  is  a  podgy,  tailless,  woolly  clothed  animal  with  a  short, 
thick-set  head  and  round,  tufted  ears.  It  is  often  absurdly 
called  the  Australian  Bear,  with  which  animal  it  has  little  in 
common  beyond  a  resemblance  to  the  woolly  toy  mon- 
strosity that  is  so  popular  in  nurseries.  Owing  to  the 
facility  with  which  it  can  climb  trees  it  is  frequently  called 
the  '  Native  Monkey,'  in  comparison  with  which  it  is  in 
reality  the  veriest  sluggard  ;  and  it  altogether  lacks  the 
volatile  temperament  of  the  four-handed  beast. 

The  Koala  is  one  of  the  most  sedentary  animals  imagin- 
able. It  will  live  in  the  same  tree  for  days,  or  even  weeks, 
if  the  supply  of  leaves  and  flowers  upon  which  it  feeds  does 
not  give  out.  The  female  has  only  one  young  one  at  a 
time,  which  is  carried  about  on  its  mother's  back  until  it 
is  half  her  own  size.  Being  perfectly  harmless  and  posi- 
tively droll  in  appearance,  the  Koala  frequently  becomes 
a  household  pet.  Sometimes,  however,  it  gives  way  to 
sudden  gusts  of  rage,  and  yells  shrilly  in  rather  an  alarming 
manner. 


442  POUCHED  ANIMALS 

FAMILY   PHASCOLOMYID^E    (WOMBATS). 

COMMON  WOMBAT   (Phascolomys  mitchelli}. 

Coloured  Plate  XXXI.  Fig.  4. 

Of  all  the  marsupials  the  Wombats,  of  which  there  are 
three  species,  are  the  most  rodent-like.  The  colonists  call 
them  Bears  and  Badgers,  and  there  is  some  excuse  for 
the  latter,  as  the  animals  excavate  remarkably  large  earth 
burrows  for  dwelling-places.  A  description  of  the  Common 
Wombat  will  serve  for  the  whole  family.  It  is  clumsy  in 
body,  which  is  covered  with  coarse  hair,  brownish  grey  or 
even  black  and  yellow,  which  thickens  considerably  towards 


SKELETON  OF  THE  WOMBAT. 

the  hindquarters.  Its  hide  is  particularly  tough,  and  with 
its  thick  harsh  fur  makes  most  durable  door-mats.  The 
dentition  of  the  animal  is  worthy  of  notice  ;  throughout  its 
life  its  teeth  grow  without  interruption.  In  each  jaw  are 
a  pair  of  powerful  incisor  teeth  strongly  suggestive  of  the 
Rodents.  All  the  toes,  except  the  great  toe  of  the  hind 
foot,  are  fitted  with  claws.  The  hind  feet  are  partially 
webbed.  Thanks  to  its  heavy  body  and  its  short  legs,  the 
gait  of  the  animal  is  only  a  rolling  waddle. 

The  Wombat  is  nocturnal  and  feeds  upon  grass  and  other 
vegetable  substances.  It  is  distributed  over  nearly  all 
Australia  and  Tasmania.  Though  with  its  incisor  teeth  it 
can  bite  severely,  the  animal  is  shy,  and  rarely  offers  resist- 
ance if  captured  during  daylight.  It  is  said  to  possess  the 
power  of  sustaining  life  under  water  for  quite  a  long  time. 


THE  BANDICOOT  443 

If  in  its  travels  it  encounters  water,  it  makes  no  attempt  to 
swim  across  it,  but  walks  along  the  bottom  until  it  can 
emerge  on  the  other  side. 

The  flesh  of  the  Wombat  is  said  to  be  not  unlike  venison 
in  taste,  and  as  a  full-grown  animal  will  scale  as  much  as 
a  hundred  and  forty  pounds,  its  capture  means  a  welcome 
addition  to  the  hunter's  larder.  Owing  to  the  depth  of  the 
creature's  burrow,  even  a  hungry  native  views  with  dis- 
favour the  task  of  digging  it  out,  and  prefers  to  wait  to 
catch  it  by  some  less  laborious  method. 


FAMILY   PERAMELID^E    (BANDICOOTS). 
BANDICOOT  (Perameles  nasuta). 
Coloured  Plate  XXXII.  Fig.  i. 

The  Bandicoots,  little  insectivorous  Kangaroos,  with  their 
long  slender  snouts,  though  larger,  are  something  similar 
to  the  Shrews  in  general  appearance.  About  sixteen  inches 
in  length,  exclusive  of  the  tapering,  cylindrical  tail,  their 
build  is  stout  but  clumsy.  The  hind  feet  are  of  the  same 
type  as  in  the  Kangaroos.  The  fur  in  colour  is  grizzled 
yellowish  brown,  but  in  the  Banded  Perameles  there  are 
four  or  five  pale  bands  vertically  crossing  the  hindquarters. 
The  Rabbit  Bandicoot  (Peragale  lagotis)  and  the  Pig-footed 
Bandicoot  (Chceropus  castanotis)  are  species  whose  names 
indicate  their  distinguishing  features.  The  pouch  opens 
towards  the  hinder  part  of  the  body.  In  movement,  owing 
to  the  greater  length  of  the  hind  legs,  all  Bandicoots  make 
progression  in  hare  and  rabbit  fashion.  They  are  the  com- 
monest of  the  Australian  marsupials,  much  to  the  regret  of 
the  colonists.  Omnivorous  in  their  diet,  they  eat  roots, 
berries,  and  almost  any  vegetable  substance,  to  which  they 
add  insects  and  worms.  They  do  immense  damage  in 
the  settled  districts,  ravaging  cultivated  fields  and  working 
havoc  in  granaries  ;  and  for  this  even  a  delicious  meal  of 
roasted  Bandicoot  the  farmer  does  not  consider  sufficient 
atonement. 


444  POUCHED  ANIMALS 

FAMILY  DASYURID^E   (DASYURES). 

What  the  colonists  call  Native  Cats  are  carnivorous  mar- 
supials of  civet-like  appearance.  Though  they  are  mild  and 
inoffensive  in  aspect,  in  reality  they  are  as  bloodthirsty  as 
the  stoats  and  weasels  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  About 
the  size  of  an  ordinary  cat,  the  body  is  freely  spotted  with 
white  upon  a  groundwork  of  brown  or  grey.  There  are 
five  species,  of  which  the  Spotted  Dasyure  (Dasyurus 
maculatus),  Plate  XLV.  Fig.  i,  is  well  known  in  Australia 
and  Tasmania.  They  are  all  arboreal  in  habit,  coming 
out  of  the  hollows  in  the  gum-trees  in  search  of  birds  and 
smaller  marsupials.  But  the  outlying  colonials'  hen-roosts 
often  bear  testimony  to  the  fact  that  the  Dasyures  have  a 
liking  for  prey  that  calls  for  little  trouble  in  the  hunting. 

TASMANIAN   DEVIL  (Dasyurus  ursinus). 
Plate  XLV.  Fig.  2. 

The  Ursine  Dasyure  is  popularly  known  as  the  'Tas- 
manian  Devil,'  which  appellation  does  not  suggest  that 
the  animal  possesses  any  very  lovable  characteristics.  Its 
reputation,  indeed,  is  blacker  than  its  coat,  which  here  and 
there  shows  redeeming  patches  of  white.  Except  for  its 

longer  tail  this  ugly  Dasyure 
generally  resembles  a  bear, 
or  what  a  bear  might  be  if 
it  grew  no  bigger  than  a 
badger.  It  is  shortish,  with 
a  broad  head,  and  its  mouth 
is  furnished  with  teeth  dis- 
TEETH  OF  THE  DASYURE.  tinctly  carnivorous  in 

character.      It    is    strictly    a 

nocturnal  animal,  scarcely  able  to  see  in  daylight,  during 
which  it  coils  itself  up  in  a  cave,  other  rocky  lair,  or  a 
burrow  of  its  own  construction,  from  which  at  night  it 
issues  to  prey  upon  any  living  creature  that  it  can  over- 
power. Mammals,  reptiles,  or  even  dead  fish  on  the  sea- 
shore are  all  welcome  to  this  voracious  feeder. 


PLATE  XLV. 


I.     SPOTTED    DASYURE. 


2.     TASMAXIAN   DEVIL. 

(Photos  W.  S.  Ber ridge,  F3.S.) 


PLATE  XLVI. 


i.     KOALA    AND    CUB. 

(See  page  441) 


2.     THYLACINE. 


(Photo  W.  Saville-Kenl,  F.Z.S.) 


(Photo  L.  Medland,  F.Z.S.) 


THE  TASMANIAN  WOLF  445 

The  Ursine  Dasyure  proved  a  positive  scourge  to  the 
earlier  Tasmanian  sheep  and  poultry  farmers  ;  and  Govern- 
ment action  was  necessary  to  remove  a  menace  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  colony.  As  late  as  thirty  years  ago  in 
one  winter  over  a  hundred  savage  depredators  were  cap- 
tured within  the  confines  of  one  large  farm.  Nowadays 
the  animal  is  found  only  in  the  less  settled  districts. 


THYLACINE    (Thylacinus  cynocephalus) . 
Plate  XLVI.  Fig.  2. 

The  Thylacine,  or  Tasmanian  Wolf,  is  the  largest  of  the 
carnivorous  marsupials.  A  casual  observer  would  immedi- 
ately classify  it  as  a  member  of  the  canine  family  ;  and, 
indeed,  it  bears  a  more  general  resemblance  to  the  wolf 
than  the  Ursine  Dasyure  does  to  the  bear.  But  the  Tas- 
manian Wolf  is  undoubtedly  a  true  marsupial,  with  a  well 
developed  pouch,  although  the  marsupial  bones  are  re- 
placed by  cartilages.  The  pouch  opens  backwards  and 
not  forwards,  as  in  the  Kangaroos. 

Very  dog-like,  narrow-muzzled,  and  clean-limbed,  the 
Thylacine  attains  a  length  of  four  or  five  feet,  including  the 
tail.  Its  coat  is  mainly  greyish  brown  with  a  dozen  or 
more  transverse  black  bands  across  the  back  and  loins, 
which  gain  for  it  the  title  Zebra-wolf. 

Hunting  by  scent  like  a  true  dog,  the  Thylacine  exhibits 
tremendous  staying  powers.  For  hours  on  end  in  a  steady 
canter  it  will  track  down  kangaroos,  wallabies,  and  smaller 
marsupials,  leaving  its  young  to  follow  at  their  leisure  to 
join  in  the  feast  that  will  probably  await  them.  Nothing 
could  have  suited  it  better  than  for  sheep  to  have  been 
introduced  into  its  native  regions.  The  imported  flocks 
speedily  suffered  to  such  an  extent  that  the  Tasmanian 
Government  put  a  price  upon  the  heads  of  the  marauding 
tribe  ;  and  this,  in  conjunction  with  the  increasing  settle- 
ment of  the  island,  has  led  to  the  extermination  of  the 
Thylacine  except  in  the  more  secluded  mountainous 
regions. 


446  POUCHED  ANIMALS 

PHASOOLOGALES    (POUCHED   WEASELS). 

Only  about  the  size  of  the  common  rat  are  the  Phascolo- 
gales,  of  which  genus  there  are  over  a  dozen  weasel  or 
rat-like  species  in  Australia  and  New  Guinea.  They  are 
arboreal  and  insectivorous,  and  climb  trees  in  search  of 
their  insect  prey.  In  all  probability  they  have  larger 
families  at  a  birth  than  any  other  marsupial.  The  pouch  is 
not  the  usually  well-defined  bag,  but  consists  of  mere  loose 
folds  of  skin,  in  some  cases  with  ten  teats  instead  of  four, 
as  in  the  Kangaroos  and  Phalangers.  The  best  known  is 
the  brush-tailed  Phascologale  (Phascologale  penicillata),  a 
pretty  little  animal  that  will  make  its  nest  in  barns  and 
similar  buildings,  instead  of  in  the  hollows  of  trunks  of 
trees  or  even  amid  the  branches. 

Smaller  still  are  the  Pouched  Mice.  One  of  the  smallest 
species  known  is  the  Jerboa  Pouched  Mouse  (Antechinomys 
laniger).  Its  hind  limbs  being  abnormally  long,  it  is  enabled 
to  make  progression  by  leaps  and  bounds  in  the  same 
fashion  as  the  jerboa,  or  the  head  of  the  marsupials,  the 
Kangaroo. 


BANDED  ANT-EATER  (Myrmecobius  fasciatus). 
Coloured  Plate  XXXII.  Fig.  2. 

In  some  respects  the  Banded  Ant-eater  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  of  the  marsupials.  In  Southern  and 
Western  Australia,  to  which  it  is  limited,  it  is  known  as  the 
4  Squirrel,'  although  it  lives  mainly  on  the  ground.  It  is  a 
true  ant-eater,  in  the  possession  of  a  long  extensile  tongue. 
Paradoxically  it  is  a  marsupial  without  a  pouch.  It  has  not 
even  the  shallowest  of  skin  folds.  The  young,  sometimes 
to  the  number  of  eight,  attach  themselves  to  the  nipples 
which  lie  hidden  in  the  patch  of  extra  long  hair  that  clothes 
the  abdomen  of  the  female.  But  if  the  Banded  Ant-eater 
lacks  the  great  distinctive  feature  of  the  marsupials,  it  can 
boast  of  more  teeth  than  any  other  animal  in  the  whole 
order.  It  possesses  fifty-two  teeth,  which  number  is  only 
exceeded  by  the  armadillos  and  some  of  the  Cetacea. 


THE  OPOSSUM  447 

FAMILY   NOTORYCTID^. 

POUCHED   MOLE  (Notoryctes  typhlops). 

Coloured  Plate  XXXII.  Fig.  3. 

The  Marsupial,  or  Pouched,  Mole  inhabits  the  sandy 
plains  in  the  region  of  Lake  Eyre.  It  is  about  five  inches 
in  length,  or  the  same  size  as  the  European  common  mole. 
In  colour  it  is  light  fawn,  varying  to  golden  yellow.  The 
most  remarkable  feature  of  the  animal  is  the  abnormal 
size  of  the  third  and  fourth  toes  of  the  fore  limbs.  They 
are  scoop-like  claws  of  great  power,  eminently  serviceable 
to  the  animal  in  its  sand-burrowing  habits.  It  appears  to 
spend  its  whole  life  in  burrowing.  Pressing  its  belly  along 
the  ground,  it  moves  with  a  slow,  sinuous  motion  for  a  few 
feet  on  the  surface,  and  then,  entering  the  sand  obliquely,  it 
burrows  along  at  a  depth  of  only  two  or  three  inches. 
Presently  it  will  emerge  to  repeat  the  process.  Probably 
no  live  specimens  have  been  brought  to  Europe,  for  the 
animal  will  not  eat  food  provided  for  it  by  its  captors. 

FAMILY   DIDELPHIDJE   (OPOSSUMS). 
OPOSSUM  (Didelphys  dorsigerus). 
Coloured  Plate  XXXII.  Fig.  4. 

Without  exception  the  marsupials  already  described  are 
Australasian,  but  save  the  kangaroo  and  its  allies  the 
American  Opossum  (Didelphys  virginiana)  is  perhaps  the 
best  known  and  certainly  not  the  least  interesting  of 
the  pouched  animals. 

The  locality  of  the  American  Opossum  is  indicated  in  its 
specific  name ;  it  abounds  in  the  warmer  parts  of  North 
America,  extending  considerably  north  of  Virginia.  In  form 
it  is  robust  and  in  size  about  that  of  an  ordinary  cat.  The 
colour  of  its  fine  woolly  fur  ranges  from  white  to  black,  and 
includes  numerous  varieties  of  intermixture.  The  out- 
standing feature  of  the  Opossum  is  its  pre-eminently  pre- 


448 


POUCHED  ANIMALS 


hensile  tail,  which  is  not  quite  so  long  as  its  body.  There 
are  five  toes  on  each  foot,  possessing  long  and  sharp  claws, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  right  foot,  the  inner  toe  of  which 
is  an  opposable  thumb  without  a  claw.  It  is  thus  well 
fitted  for  life  among  the  trees,  around  the  branches  of  which 
it  can  twist  its  tail  for  additional  security,  or  especially  when 
its  claws  are  partly  occupied  while  devouring  its  prey. 

The  muzzle  of  the  Opossum  is  long  and  pointed  ;  the 
mouth  is  wide  and  fitted  with  fifty  teeth,  with  which  to 
grind  up  its  varied  provender  of  leaves,  tender  shoots,  and 
berries,  insects,  lizards,  eggs,  and  birds.  In  the  case  of  the 
last  named  the  animal  only  sucks  the  blood  and  does  not 


SKELETON  OF  THE  CRAB-EATING  OPOSSUM. 

eat  the  flesh.  Its  appetite  is  insatiable,  and  it  is  an  annoy- 
ance to  the  fruit-grower,  and  a  positive  pest  to  the  poultry 
farmer.  While  eating,  it  frequently  uses  all  four  feet  as 
hands,  twisting  its  tail  round  a  branch  and  trusting  alone 
to  it  for  support. 

There  are  usually  a  dozen  or  more  young  ones  at  a  birth. 
They  are  blind  and  naked,  and  the  little  immature  creatures 
cling  to  the  mother's  teats  so  firmly  that  they  can  only  be 
moved  by  violence.  In  less  than  a  week  they  leave  the 
pouch,  scampering  back  to  their  retreat  at  the  least  alarm. 
When  thus  sheltering  her  young  the  mother  will  suffer  any 
torture  rather  than  allow  the  pouch  to  be  opened. 

No  other  mammal,  not  even  the  fox,  can   surpass  the 


THE  OPOSSUM  449 

Opossum  in  pertinacity  and  cunning.  Caught  red-handed 
in  one  of  its  marauding  excursions,  or  captured  under  any 
other  circumstances,  the  slightest  blow  causes  it  immediately 
to  feign  death,  even  to  the  extent  of  a  protruding  tongue 
and  film-covered  eyes.  It  may  be  battered  almost  beyond 
recognition  and  will  lie  where  it  has  been  ignominiously 
flung  without  so  much  as  the  flicker  of  an  eyelid.  The 
moment,  however,  that  its  captor  takes  attention  from  it, 
the  presumably  dead  animal  regains  its  feet  and  effects  its 
escape.  '  Possuming '  is  a  slang  term  that  has  thus  come 
into  use  to  denote  the  acme  of  human  artfulness  and 
deceit. 

Merian's  Opossum  (Didelphys  dorsigerus)  is  a  wonderfully 
pretty  species  of  Opossum  which  lives  in  Surinam,  and  is 
named  in  compliment  to  Madame  Merian,  who  described 
and  figured  it  in  the  year  1719.  It  is  scarcely  larger  than 
a  good-sized  mouse,  the  body  measuring  only  six  inches 
from  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  It  has  scarcely  a 
vestige  of  pouch,  and  so,  robbed  of  this  advantage,  it 
carries  its  young  on  its  back,  curling  its  tail  over,  so  as  to 
allow  the  little  ones  to  twist  their  tails  around  it.  With  her 
progeny  thus  secured  from  falling,  and  herself  quite  unin- 
convenienced,  the  mother,  a  combination  of  perambulator 
and  feeding-bottle,  can  pursue  her  way  in  comfort.  Even 
some  of  the  larger  Opossums  adopt  this  method  of  carrying 
their  young. 

The  Crab-eating  Opossum  (Didelphys  cancrivorus),  Plate 
XLVII.  Fig.  2,  although  it  finds  most  of  its  food  on  the 
ground,  and  even  on  the  shore,  is  essentially  an  arboreal 
animal,  the  long  prehensile  tail  being  of  great  service  to  it 
among  the  branches.  On  the  ground  it  is  slow  and  clumsy, 
as  is  not  infrequently  the  case  with  arboreal  animals.  As 
suggested  by  its  name,  the  creature  feeds  upon  the  smaller 
Crustacea  as  well  as  on  the  birds,  small  mammals,  insects, 
&c.,  which  form  the  usual  food  of  an  Opossum. 

The  Yapock,  or  Water  Opossum  (Chironectes  yapock),  of 
Guiana,  is  the  marsupial  representative  of  the  beaver  and 
other  aquatic  rodents.  The  hind  feet  are  webbed,  and  the 
fore  feet  are  remarkable  for  appearing  to  have  six  toes. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  the  apparent  toe  being  in 

3° 


4So  POUCHED  ANIMALS 

reality  a  development  of  one  of  the  wrist  bones,  which  is 
much  elongated,  so  as  to  support  the  web.  This  is  but 
another  illustration  of  the  oft-repeated  axiom  that  there  is 
no  waste  in  nature.  In  point  of  colour  the  Yapock  is 
the  most  striking  of  all  the  Opossums,  the  hue  of  the  fur 
being  grey,  crossed  by  four  bands  of  deep  black,  and 
having  a  band  of  the  same  colour  running  along  the  spine, 
and  spreading  into  a  large  patch  on  the  top  of  the  head. 
It  is  an  active  swimmer,  chasing  and  catching  fish  in  their 
own  element.  In  consequence  of  its  powers  in  the  water, 
it  often  goes  by  the  name  of  Otter,  and  even  Buffon  failed 
to  detect  its  marsupial  nature,  describing  it  as  the  Little 
Otter  of  Guiana. 


PLATE  XLVII. 


I.     ECHIDNA. 

(See  page  453) 


CRAB-EATING,  OPOSSUM. 
(?ee  iage  449) 


(.Photos  W.  S   Bcrridge,  F.Z.S.) 


PLATE  XLVI1I. 


•  V  vr"?- 

s  j 


f-. 


i.  HEAD  OF  THE  ECHIDNA.     2.  DUCKBILL. 

(Src  page  454) 


Chapter  XVI 

ORDER  XI.— MONOTREMATA 


General  description  of  the  Monotremata — Echidna — 

Duckbill. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Order  XI. — Monotremata 

WHETHER  the  few  remaining  mammals  should  be 
classed  with  the  marsupials,  or  should  form  a 
separate  order,  was  long  a  disputed  point.  In  the  mar- 
supials the  young  are  brought  into  the  world  while  they 
are  in  an  abnormally  early  and  helpless  stage.  But  there 
are  mammals  on  a  still  lower  rung  of  the  evolutional  ladder, 
whose  young  are  brought  into  the  world  in  the  shape  of  eggs 
— in  one  case  deposited  in  an  underground  burrow,  and  in 
the  other  carried  about  in  the  pouch  of  the  parent  until  the 
young  are  hatched.  From  that  time  their  existence  is  con- 
tinued exactly  as  in  the  case  of  the  young  marsupials. 

The  Monotremes,  of  which  there  are  only  two  distinct 
family  types,  in  the  one  aspect  of  egg-laying  lean  towards 
the  reptiles,  but  in  other  respects  are  true  mammals.  They 
may  be  viewed  as  composites,  links  between  the  Mammalia 
and  Reptilia.  In  any  case  their  peculiar  position  merits  the 
placing  of  them  in  an  order  of  their  own. 

ECHIDNA  (Echidna  aculeata). 
Plate  XLVII.  Fig.  i. 

•The  Echidna,  or  Porcupine  Ant-eater,  a  native  of  Australia, 
is  quite  an  extraordinary  creature.  About  a  foot  in  length, 
it  is  much  like  a  hedgehog,  except  that  its  spines  are  larger 
and  stronger  and  are  set  in  a  coat  of  silky,  chestnut-coloured 
hair.  Its  head  is  small,  with  a  slender  and  very  elongated 
muzzle.  The  mouth  is  small  and  toothless,  but  the  tongue 

453 


454 


MONOTREMATA 


and  palate  are  furnished  with  rows  of  small  spines.  The 
tongue,  in  addition,  is  extensile  and  serves  the  same  purpose 
as  that  of  the  Ant-eater  (Plate  XLVIII.  Fig.  i). 

The  legs  of  the  Echidna  are  short  and  the  feet  are  fitted 
with  enormous  claws,  the  hind  ones  being  directed  back- 
wards and  outwards,  thus  forming  excellent  shovels  for  the 
removal  of  soil    when  engaged  in  burrowing  operations. 
In  proportion  to  its  size  the  strength 
of  the   Echidna    is    remarkable.      It 
burrows    with    a    rapidity    equal    at 
least  to   that   of  the    mole,  and  if  it 
cannot     disappear     entirely,    in     an 
almost    incredibly    short    time    it  is 
buried  sufficiently    to    present    only 
its    spiny    back    to    an    enemy.      It 
cannot    roll    itself    into    a    ball    so 
successfully  as  the  hedgehog. 

With  its  claws  it  makes  short 
work  of  ant  hills,  in  which  it  con- 
fines its  attention  chiefly  to  the 
white  larvae  and  pupal  phases  of  the 
insects.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  animal  varies  its  diet  with 
grasses  and  herbs.  In  captivity  it 

evinces  a  liking  for  bread  and  milk  and  chopped-up 
meat. 

The  Echidna  usually  lays  only  one  egg  at  a  time  ;  it 
is  not  larger  than  that  of  a  sparrow;  it  is  white  and 
leathery,  and  is  carried  about  in  a  skin  fold  until  it  is 
hatched. 

The  Tasmanian  and  New  Guinea  species  call  for  no 
mention  beyond  the  record  of  their  existence. 

DUCKBILL  (Ornithorhynchus  anatinus). 
Plate  XLVIII.  Fig.  2. 

The  Platypus,  Duckbill,  or  Water  Mole,  is  appropriately 
named  in  all  three  of  its  titles.  The  generic  name  means  a 
snouted  bird.  When  a  stuffed  specimen  of  the  animal  was 


MOUTH  (A)  AND  NOSE- 
SNOUT  (B)  OF  THE 
ECHIDNA. 


THE  DUCKBILL 


455 


FORE   FOOT  OF  THE 
DUCKBILL. 


first  brought  to  England  it  was  viewed  as  a  fraud,  the  work 
of  a  jocular  taxidermist,  whose  humour  has  been  known  to 
produce  an  excellent  mermaid  out  of  the  skin  of  a  monkey 
and  the  tail  of  a  salmon. 

Reference  to  the  illustration  will  render  any  minute 
description  unnecessary.  The  body,  ovate  and  depressed, 
and  without  any  real  neck,  is  clothed  with  short,  dense  fur, 
not  unlike  that  of  the  otter  in  its 
colour  and  texture.  The  tail  is  short 
and  flattened,  and  reminds  one  of 
that  of  the  beaver,  except  that  it  is 
not  naked  and  scaly,  nor  is  it  used 
for  any  other  purpose  than  that  of 
a  helm.  The  webbing  of  the  fore 
feet  extends  beyond  the  extremity 
of  the  claws.  The  Duckbill  is  as 
lithe  of  body  as  a  cat.  The 

skin,  too,  is  so  loose  that  when  one  is  shot  its  bones 
will  be  broken,  though  none  of  the  shots  penetrate  the 
skin. 

The  so-called  beak  is  a  prolongation  of  the  bones  of  the 
face,  but  the  result  not  only  resembles 
the  bill  of  a  duck,  but  it  performs  a 
similar  office  in  grubbing  in  mud  in 
search  of  food.  To  protect  the  eyes 
it  is  fitted  with  a  shield-like  structure 
at  the  base.  The  animal  possesses  no 
true  teeth,  only  flat,  horny  plates,  which 
are  quite  sufficient  to  grind  up  the 
molluscs,  worms,  and  insects  which 
are  extracted  from  the  muddy  beds. 
As  it  catches  its  food  it  stows  it  away 
in  its  capacious  cheek-pouches. 

The  Platypus  is  shy  and  retiring  and  strictly  nocturnal  in 
habit.  Its  burrow,  thirty  to  fifty  feet  in  length,  always  con- 
tains two  entrances — one  under  water  and  the  other  usually 
in  a  thicket  at  some  distance  from  the  water's  edge.  The 
difficulties  of  watching  such  an  animal  are  very  great,  and 
for  many  years  it  was  a  puzzle  to  naturalists.  It  was  not 
until  1884  that  it  was  proved  to  lay  eggs,  two  of  which  are 


456 


MONOTREMATA 


deposited  in  a  loose  nest  of  weeds  and  roots  at  a  secure 
point  in  the  burrow.  The  covering  of  the  egg  is  flexible,  as 
in  the  case  of  many  reptiles.  The  female's  pouch  is  simply 
a  fold  in  the  skin,  and  that  is  only  present  during  the  breed- 
ing season;  there  are  no  teats,  but  the  mammary  gland 
swells  into  small  projections,  which  can  be  seized  by  the 
pulpy  lips  of  the  young.  The  young  animals  are  very 
playful,  and  in  captivity  are  as  droll  and  interesting  as 
puppies. 


Index 


AARD-VARK,  425 

Arui,  315 

Black  Buffalo,  306 

Aard  Wolf,  140 

Assapan,  215 

Black-faced  Lemur,  71 

Abyssinian  Baboon,  58 

Ass,  Domestic,  285 

Black  Monkey,  56 

Addax  Antelope,  336 

„    Wild,  284 

Black  Hog,  390 

Agouti,  240 

Astrachan  Lamb,  163 

Black  Rat,  227 

Ai,  422 

Aurochs,  295 

Bladder-nose  Seal,  195 

Albino  Wolf,  154 

Axis  Deer,  362 

Black  Rhinoceros,  270 

Alpaca,  380 

Aye-Aye,  74 

Blesbok,  336 

Alpine  Marmot,  217 

Blood,  Circulation  of,  22 

Ambergris,  412 

BABOON,  56 

Blue  Fox,  158 

American  Tapir,  273 

Abyssinian,  58 

Blue  Gnu,  332 

Angora  Goat,  318 

„        Chacma,  57 

Blue  Ox,  332 

Anoa,  307 

Pig-faced,  57 

Blue-side  Seal,  195 

Anomalure,  215 

„        Thoth,  58 

Boar,  Wild,  383 

Ant  Bear,  424 

Yellow,  56 

Bobac,  218 

Ant-eater,  Banded,  446 

Babyrussa,  388 

Bolita,  428 

„          Great,  424 

Bactrian  Camel,  378 

Bonnet  Monkey,  54 

„          Porcupine,  453 

Badger,  169 

Borele,  270 

Antlers,  composition  and 

Rock,  253 

BOVID^E  : 

growth,  343 

BALJENID&,  404 

Ox,  Domestic,  295 

Antelope  (see  Antilopidae), 

Baleen,  404 

Zebu,  297 

322 

Banded  Ant-eater,  446 

Wild  Oxen,  298 

Anthropoid  Apes,  39 

Bangsring,  101 

Gaur,  299 

ANTHROPOIDEA,  38 

Barasingha,  364 

Gayal,  299 

ANTILOPID^  :— 

Barbary  Ape,  55 

Banting,  300 

Gazelle,  325 

Barbary  Wild  Sheep,  315 

Yak,  300 

Springbok,  326 

Barbastelle  Bat,  85 

Bison,  302 

Gemsbok,  327 

Barking  Deer,  365 

Buffalo,  305 

Oryx,  328 

Bashful  Billy,  73 

Musk  Ox,  308 

Equine  Antelope,  328 

Bat  guano,  88 

BRADYPODJD^E,  421 

Sable  Antelope,  329 

Bats  (see  Chiroptera),  79 

Brahmin  Bull,  297 

Waterbuck,  329 

Bears  (see  Ursidae),  180 

Brain  of  Man,  21 

Eland,  330 

Beatrix  Antelope,  328 

Brindled  Gnu,  332 

Gnu,  331 

Beaver,  219 

Brockets,  361 

Nilgai  Antelope,  332 

Beech  Marten,  166 

Brown  Bear,  181 

Prong-horned  Antelope, 

Beluga,  416 

Brown  Mouse  Lemur,  72 

333 

Berkshire  Pig,  386 

Brown  Rat,  227 

Saiga  Antelope,  334 

Bhunder  Monkey,  54 

Brumby,  282 

Klipspringer,  334 

BIMANA: 

Buffalo,  Cape,  306 

Kudu,  334 

Skeleton  of  Man,  20 

„       Indian,  305 

Hartebeest,  335 

Vertebral  Column,  20 

„       Short-horned,  307 

Blesbok,  336 

Muscles,  21 

„       Water,  305 

Four-horned    Antelope, 

Brain,  21 

Bush  Pig,  387 

336 

Nerves,  21 

Addax  Antelope,  336 

Blood,  Circulation  of,  22 

CACHALOT,  411 

Royal  Antelope,  336 

Digestion,  23 

Cacomistle,  179 

Dik-dik  Antelope,  336 

Teeth,  23 

CAMELID^E  : 

Ape,  Barbary,  55 

Respiration,  24 

Camel,  Arabian,  373 

Apes,  Anthropoid,  39 

Races  of  Mankind,  26 

„       Bactrian,  378 

Apara,  428 

Big  game  preservation,  265 

CAMELOPARDALID/E, 

Arabian  Camel,  373 

Bighorn,  316 

337 

Arctic  Fox,  158 

Binturong,  144 

CANID^  : 

Arctic  Hare,  245 

Bison,  American,  303 

Dog,  Domestic,  146 

Argali,  314 

„      European,  302 

„     Eskimo,  148 

Armadillo,  427 

Black-backed  Jackal,  156 

„     Wild,  150 

ARTIODACTYLA,  291 

Black  Bear,  188 

„     Pariah,  150 

457 

458 


INDEX 


(continued)— 
Dog,  Red,  150 

„     Cape  Hunting,  151 
Dingo,  151 
Wolf,  151 
Jackal,  155 
Fox,  Common,  156 
„    Cross,  158 
„    Arctic,  158 
„    Blue,  158 
M    Silver,  158 
Fennec,  159 
Canadian  Lynx,  133 
Canadian  Porcupine,  238 
Cape  Buffalo,  306 
„    Polecat,  171 
CAPRA : 

Goat,  Common,  316 
„      Angora,  318 
„      Kashmir,  319 
Ibex,  319 
Markhor,  321 
Tahr,  321 
Pasang,  322 
Capuchin  Monkey,  68 
Capyarab,  242 
Caracal,  133 
Caribou,  355 
CARNIVORA    OF    THE 

LAND,  105 
CARNIVORA   OF    THE 

SEA,  191 
Carpi  ncho,  242 
CASTORID;£,  219 
Cat,  Domestic,  131 
Fishing,  130 
Native,  444 
Ring-tailed,  179 
Toddy,  144 
Tree,  144 
Wild,  130 
CATADONTID^,  411 
CATARRHINI,  39 
Caucasian,       or       White 
Family,  26 

„     '     Wild  Goat,  322 
CAVIID^:,  241 
Cavy,  241 
Cawquaw,  239 
CENTETID.E,  100 
CERCOPITHECID.E,  53 
CERCOPITHECIN.E,  53 
CERCOPITHECUS,  53 
CERVID.E  : 
Deer,  Red,  345 
„      Fallow,  349 
»      Roe,  351 
Elk,  352 
Reindeer,  355 
Wapiti,  358 
Deer,  Virginian,  360 
„      Mule,  361 
„      Pampas,  361 
Brockets,  361 
Deer,  Pudu,  361 
„      Axis,  362 
„      Sambar,  362 


CERVID^E  (continued)— 

DASYURID^  : 

Deer,  Swamp,  363 

Dasyure,  Spotted,  444 

„     Schomburgk's,  364 
„       Eld's,  364 

Dasyure  Ursine,  444 
David's  Deer,  366 

Muntjac,  365 

Deer  (see  Cervidse),  342 

Deer,  Sika,  365 

Deerlet,  371 

„      Water,  366 

DELPHINID^:,  415 

„      Elaphure,  366 

Diana  Monkey,  61 

„      Musk,  366 

DICOTYLID^E,  391 

Cervine  Antelope,  335 

DIDELPHID^E,  447 

CETACEA  : 
Whale,  Greenland,  404 

Digestion,  23 
DIGITIGRADES,  106 

„        Southern  Right, 

Dik-Dik  Antelope,  336 

407 

Dingo,  151 

„        Rorqual,  407 

DIPODID^E,  236 

„        Humpback,  410 

Dog,  Domestic,  146 

„        Sperm,  411 

„      Eskimo,  148 

Narwhal,  415 

„      Wild,  150 

Porpoise,  416 

Dolphin,  417 

Dolphin,  417 

Dormouse,  226 

Killer  Whale,  418 

Dourocouli,  69 

Chacma,  57 

Dromedary,  375 

Chamois,  323 

Duckbill,  454 

Cheetah,  133 

Dugong,  309 

Chevrotain,  371 

DUPLICIDENTATA,  211 

Chimpanzee,  44 

Dwarf  Mouse  Lemur,  72 

Chinchilla,  239 

Dziggetai,  284 

CHINCHILLID/E,  239 

Chinese  Elaphure,  366 

ECHIDNA,  453 

„      Water  Deer,  366 

EDENTATA  : 

Chipmunk,  216 

Sloth,  422 

Chipping  Squirrel,  216 

Ant-eater,  Great,  424 

CHIROPTERA  : 

Aardvark,  425 

Bat,  Long-eared,  83 

Pangolin,  426 

„     Pipistrelle,  85 

Phatagin,  427 

„    Barbastelle,  85 

Armadillo,  427 

„    Whiskered,  85 

EFFODENTIA,  421 

„     Horseshoe,  85 

Eland,  330 

„     Mouse-coloured,  85 

Elaphure,  Chinese,  366 

„     Fruit,  86 

Eld's  Deer,  364 

„     Kalong,  86 

ELEPHANTID^E,  253 

„    Vampire,  87 

Elephant,  African,  253 

Chital,  362 

„          Indian,  253 

Civet,  141 

Elephant  Seal,  196 

„      Palm,  144 

ElephantjShrew,  100 

Claws,  Retractile,  109 

Elk,  352 

Coaita,  67 

EQUID^E  : 

Coaiti-mondi,  178 

Horse,  274 

Cobego,  76 

Ass,  Wild,  284 

Collared  Fruit  Bat,  86 

„   Domestic,  285 

„       Lemur,  71 

Zebra,  287 

„       Peccary,  391 

Quagga,  288 

Colugo,  75 

Equine  Antelope,  328 

Coney,  252 

ERINACEIDyE,  91 

Coon,  178 

Ermine,  162 

Cougar,  128 

Cow,  Sea,  399 

FALLOW  DEER,  349 

Coyote,  154 

Fat  Dormouse,  226 

Crested  Seal,  195 
Cross  Fox,  158 

Fat-tailed  Sheep,  313 
FELID^  : 

Cuscus,  Grey,  439 

Lion,  no 

„       Spotted,  439 

Tiger,  117 

Cynogale,  145 

Leopard,  123 

Jaguar,  126 

Puma,  128 

DASYPODID;£,  427 
DASYPROCTID^E,  240 

Ocelot,  130 
Fishing  Cat,  130 

INDEX 


459 


FELID^E  (continued)— 

Hamster,  233 

JACKAL,  155 

Serval,  130 

Hand-drinker,  69 

Jaguar,  126 

Wild  Cat,  130 

Hanuman  Monkey,  63 

Javan  Ox,  300 

Domestic  Cat,  131 

Hare,  242 

„      Squirrel,  214 

Lynx,  132 

„    Arctic,  245 

Jelerang,  214 

Caracal,  133 

„    Cape  Jumping,  237 

Jerboa,  -2  36 

Cheetah,  133 

„    Mountain,  245 

Jerboa    Pouched    Mouse, 

Fennec,  159 

Hare  Wallaby,  437 

446 

Ferret,  164 

Harp  Seal,  195 

Jumping  Hare,  Cape,  237 

Field  Mouse,  Short-tailed, 

Harrison  Pig,  386 

Jumping  Shrew,  100 

230 

Hartebeest,  335 

Jungle  Sheep,  365 

Field  Vole,  230 

Heart,  Description  of  the 

Fish-eating  Rat,  236 

human,  22 

KABAOBA,  271 

Fishing  Cat,  130 

Hedgehog,  91 

Kakar,  365 

FISSIPEDIA,  105 

Hedge-pig,  92 

Kalong,  86 

Flittermouse,  79 

Heirie,  375 

Kamschatka  Wild  Sheep, 

Flying  Fox,  86 
„      Lemur,  75 

Hinny,  286 
HIPPO  POTAMID^E,  392 

315 
Kanchil,  371 

„      Phalanger,  440 

Hippopotamus,  392 

Kangaroo,  433 

„      Squirrel,  214 

Hoary  Marmot,  218 

Tree,  436 

Four-horned  Antelope,  336 

Hog,  Black,  390 

Kangaroo  Rat,  236 

Fox,  Arctic,  158 

„     Wart,  389 

Kashmir  Goat,  319 

„    Blue,  158 

HOLLOW-HORNED 

Keitloa,  267,  270 

„    Common,  156 

RUMINANTS,  294 

Killer  Whale,  418 

„    Cross,  158 

homo  troglodytes,  36 

Kinkajou,  179 

„    Silver,  158 

Horn,  formation  of,  294 

Klipdas,  253 

Fox  Squirrel,  213 

Horse,  274 

Klipspringer,  334 

Fruit  Bat,  86 

Horseshoe  Bat,  85 

Knobber,l346 

Fur  Seals,  192,  200 

Howling  Monkey,  67 

Koala,  441 

Furze-pig,  92 

Huanaco,  381 

Kudu,  334 

Humpback  Whale,  410 

Kukang,  73 

GALAGO,  73 

Hunting  Dog,  151 

Game  Laws,  243 

„       Leopard,  134 

LAMB,  Astrachan,  163 

Game,     Preservation     of 

HY^NID^E  : 

Laughing  Hyaena,  138 

Big,  265 
Gazelle,  325 

Hyaena,  Striped,  136 
„       Spotted,  138 

Leather-flapper,  79 
Lemming,  234 

Gemsbok,  327 

Aard  Wolf,  140 

Lemur,  Black-faced,  71 

Genet,  144 

HYRACID^E  : 

Brown  Mouse,  72 

Gerow,  362 

Hyrax,  Syrian,  252 

Collared,  71 

Gibbon,  Agile,  51 

„      Cape,  252 

Dwarf  Mouse,  72 

„      White-handed,  51 

„      Tree,  253 

Flying,  75 

Giraffe,  337 

HYRACOIDEA,  252 

Red,  71 

Glutton,  1  68 

HYSTRICID^:,  237 

Ring-tailed,  72 

Gnu,  331 

HYSTRICOMORPHA, 

Ruffled,  71 

Goat  (see  Capra),  316 

211 

LEMUROIDEA,  70 

Goat  and  Sheep  compared, 

LEMUROIDS,  72 

309 

IBEX,  319 

Leopard,  123 

Golden  Agouti,  240 

Ice  Bear,  185 

LEPORIDvE,  242 

Gorilla,  39 

Ice  Seal,  195 

Liberian     Hippopotamus, 

Grampus,  418 

Ichneumon,  142 

394 

Greenland  Whale,  404 

Impoofo,  330 

ligamentum  tens,  49 

Green  Monkey,  54 

Indian  Elephant,  253 

Lion,  no 

Grey  Cuscus,  439 

H      Ox,  297 

Lion  Tamarin,  70 

Greyhound  Pig,  386 

„       Rhinoceros,  268 

Llama,  379 

Grey  Seal,  195 

INSECTIVORA  : 

Loir,  226 

Grivet  Monkey,  54 

Hedgehog,  91 

Long-eared  Bat,  83 

Grizzly  Bear,  183 

Mole,  Common,  94 

Loris,  Slender,  73 

Ground  Squirrel,  216 

Shrew,  Common,  98 

Loris,  Slow,  73 

Grunting  Ox,  300 

„      Pigmy,  99 

LUTRINiE,  173 

Guanaco,  381 

„     Water,  99 

Lynx,  132 

Guano,  Bat,  88 

Elephant,  100 

Guinea  Pig,  241 

Tanrec,  100 

MACAQUES,  54 

Tendrac,  101 

Macaque,  Pig-tailed,  54 

HACKEE,  216 

Tana,  101 

MACROPODID^:,  433 

Hair  Seals,  192 

Potomogale,  102 

MACROSCELIDID.E, 

Hairy-eared     Rhinoceros, 

Invertebrate  Animals,  9 

100 

269 

Irish  Elk,  350 

Madagascar  Cat,  70 

460 


INDEX 


Magot,  55 

Mountain  Hare,  245 

Maholi  Galago,  73 

Mouse  (see  Muridae),  222 

Malayan  Bear,  188 

Mouse-coloured  Bat,  85 

Malayan  Tapir,  273 

Mouse  Deer,  371 

Malay  Family,  28 

Mouse,  Field,  224 

MAMMALIA,  TABLE  OF 

„        Harvest,  225 

ORDERS,  12 

House,  223 

Mammoth,  255 
Man    and    Monkey  com- 

Spiny, 236 
Mule,  286 

pared,  33 

Mule  Deer,  361 

Manatee,  397 

Mungoose,  143 

Mandrill,  59 

Muntjac,  365 

Man-eating  Lion,  114 

MURDI^E  : 

„      Tiger,  118 

Mouse,  House,  223 

Mangabey,  61 
MANID^E,  426 

„       Field,  224 
„       Harvest,  225 

Mankind,  Races  of,  26 

Rat,  Black,  227 

Marco  Polo's  Sheep,  315 

„      Brown,  227 

Markhor,  321 

Vole,  Field,  230 

Marmoset,  69 

„     Water,  232 

Marmot,  217 

Musquash,  232 

MARSUPIALIA,  431 

Hamster,  233 

Kangaroo,  Great  Grey, 

Lemming,  234 

433 

Kangaroo  Rat,  236 

„          Tree,  436 

Muscle,  21 

Wallaby,  437 

Musk  Deer,  366 

Rat  Kangaroo,  438 

Ox,  308 

Cuscus,  439 

Rat,  232 

Phalanger,  Vulpine,  439 

Musquash,  232 

Flying,  440 

Mustang,  282 

Koala,  441 

MUSTELID.E  : 

Wombat,  442 

Weasel,  160 

Bandicoot,  443 

Stoat  (Ermine),  162 

Dasyure,  444 

Polecat,  163 

Tasmanian  Devil,  444 

Ferret,  164 

Thylacine,  445 

Mink,  165 

Phascologale,  446 

Marten,  166 

Jerboa  Pouched  Mouse, 

Sable,  167 

446 

Glutton,  1  68 

Ant-eater,  Banded,  446 

Badger,  169 

Mole,  Pouched,  447 

Skunk,  172 

Opossum,  447 

Teledu,  173 

Marsupial  Mole,  447 

Otter,  Common,  173 

Marten,  166 

Sea,  176 

Masked  Pig,  386 

MUSTELINE,  159 

Meerkat,  144 

MYOMORPHA,  211 

MELIN.E,  169 

MYRMECO  P  HAG  I  DJE, 

Merino  Sheep,  311 

424 

Mias,  48 

MYSTACOCETI,  404 

Mink,  165 

Mithan,  299 

NAKED  SAND  RAT,  236 

Mochucho,  271 
Mole,  Common,  94 

Narrow-nosed  Monkeys,39 
Narwhal,  415 

„      Marsupial,  447 

Native  Bear,  441 

„      Pouched,  447 

Native  Cat,  444 

„     Water,  454 

Negro  Family,  28 

Mongolian  Family,  28 

Nerves,  21 

Mongoose,  143 
Monkey      (see      Quadru- 

Nil  Bhunder  Monkey,  56 
Nilgai  Antelope,  332 

mana),  33 

Non-ruminant  Hoofed 

Monkey  and    Man    com- 

Animals, 382 

pared,  33 
Monkey  Speech,  36 

Norwegian  Rat,  227 
NOTORYCTID^E,  447 

MONOTREMATA,  453 

Moose,  352 

OCELOT,  130 

Morse,  203 

Okapi,  341 

Mouflon,  313 

Ondatra,  232 

Opossum,  Crab-eating,  449 
„         Marian's,  449 
„         Virginian,  447 

Water,  449 
Orang-Outan,  48 
Origin  of  Species,  37 
ORYCTEROPID^:,  425 
Oryx,  328 
OTARIID^E,  192 
Otter,  Common,  173 

„      Sea,  176 
Ouistiti,  70 
Ounce,  126 
OVID/E  : 

Sheep,  Domestic,  310 
Mouflon,  313 
Argali,  314 

Sheep,        Kamschatkan 
Wild,  315 

„      Pamir  Wild,  315 
„      Barbary       Wild, 

315 

Urial,  315 
Sha,  315 
Bighorn,  316 
Oxen  (see  Bovidas),  294 
Ox,  Musk,  308 


PACHYDERMATA,  274 
Padamelon,  437 
Palm  Civet,  144 
Pamir  Wild  Sheep,  315 
Pampas  Deer,  361 
Panda,  179 
Pangolin,  426 
panniculus  carnosus,  92, 413 
Panther,  123,  128 
Paradoxure,  144 
Pardine  Lynx,  132 
Pariah  Dog,  150 
Pasang,  322 
Patas  Monkey,  62 
Peccary,  Collared,  391 

„        White-lipped,39i 
PECORA,  293 
PERAMELID^,  443 
PERISSODACTYLA,  266 
Phalanger,  Flying,  440 
„          Vulpine,  440 
PHALANGITID^:,  438 
Pharaoh's  Rat,  142 
Phascologale,  446 
PHASCOLOMYID^E,  442 
Phatagin,  427 
PHOCIDjE,  193 
Pig-faced  Baboon,  57 
Pigmy  Antelope,  336 

„      Flying    Phalanger, 
440 

„      Hippopotamus,  394 

„      Musk  Deer,  371 

„      Shrew,  99 
Pig-footed  Bandicoot,  443 
Pig-tailed  Macaque,  54 
Pika,  248 
Pine  Marten,  166 


INDEX 


461 


PINNIPEDIA  : 

QUADRUMANA  (cont.)— 

Seal,  Common,  193 

Capuchin  Monkey,  68 

„     Grey,  195 
„     Bladder-nosed,  195 

Saki,  69 
Hand-drinker,  69 

„     Greenland,  195 

Douricouli,  69 

Sea  Leopard,  196 

Marmoset,  69 

Sea  Elephant,  196 

Lion  Tamarin,  70 

Sea  Lion,  198 

Lemurs,  71 

Sea  Bear,  200 

Loris,  73 

Walrus,  203 

Galago,  73 

Pipistrelle  Bat,  85 

Tarsier,  74 

PLANTIGRADES,  106 

Aye-aye,  74 

Platypus,  454 

Colugo,  75 

PLATYRRHINI,  64 

Quagga,  288 

Polar  Bear,  185 

Quasje,  178 

Polatouche,  215 

Polecat,  163 

RABBIT,  Wild,  245 

Polynesians,  28 

„        Ostend,  246 

Porcupine  Ant-eater,  453 

Rabbit,  Tame,  247 

Porcupine,  Common,  237 

Dutch,  247 

„         Canadian,  238 

Angora,  247 

Porpoise,  416 

Lop-eared,  247 

Potamogale,  102 

Himalayan,  247 

POTAMOGALID^E,  102 

Flemish  Giant,  248 

Potoroo,  438 

Rabbit  Bandicoot,  443 

Pouched  Mole,  447 

Raccoon,  177 

Poyu,  428 

Races  of  Mankind,  26 

Prairie  Dog,  218 

Rat  (see  Muridae),  222 

Prairie  Wolf,  154 

Rat,  Black,  227 

PRIMATES,  17 

„    Brown,  227 

PROBOSCIDEA,  253 

„     Fish-eating,  236 

Proboscis  Monkey,  64 

„     Kangaroo,  236 

PROCYONID.E  : 

„     Naked  Sand,  236 

Raccoon,  177 

„     Pharaoh's,  142 

Coaiti-mondi,  178 

„    Water,  228 

Kinkajou,  179 

Red  Deer,  345 

Cacomistle,  179 

Red  Dog,  150 

Panda,  179 

Red  Howler,  67 

Prongbuck,  333 

Red  Indian,  28 

Prong-horned      Antelope, 

Red  Kangaroo,  436 

333 

Red  Lemur,  71 

Pudu  Deer,  361 

Red  Monkey,  62 

Puma,  128 

Red-necked  Wallaby,  437 

Reem,  271 

QUADRUMANA  : 

Reindeer,  355 

Gorilla,  39 

Respiration,  24 

Chimpanzee,  44 

Retractile  Claws,  109 

Orang-Outan,  48 

Rhesus  Monkey,  54 

Gibbons,  51 

Rhinaster,  270 

Green  Monkey,  54 

RHINOCEROTID^E  : 

Macaques,  54 

Rhinoceros,  Indian,  268 

Rhesus  Monkey,  54 

„          Hairy-eared, 

Bonnet  Monkey,  54 

269 

Barbary  Ape,  55 

„         Sumatran, 

Wanderoo,  56 

269 

Baboons,  56 

„          Javan,  270 

Mandrill,  59 

„          African,  270 

Diana  Monkey,  61 

Black,  270 

White-nosed  Monkey,  61 
Mangabeys,  61 

„          Keitloa,  270 
„         Bu  re  hell's, 

Patas,  or  Red,  Monkey, 

271 

62 

Rhytina,  400 

Hanuman  Monkey,  63 

Rib-faced  Deer,  365 

Proboscis  Monkey,  64 

Rib-nosed  Baboon,  59 

Spider  Monkeys,  65 
Coaita,  67 

Right  Whale,  404 
Right    Whale,    Southern, 

Red  Howler,  67 

407 

Ring-tailed  Cat,  179 
Ring-tailed  Lemur,  72 
River  Horse,  392 
Rock  Badger,  253 
Rock  Wallaby,  437 
RODENTIA  : 
Squirrels  (see  Sciuridae), 

211 

Beaver,  219 

Rats  and  Mice  (see  Mu- 
ridae),  222 

Jerboa,  236 

Cape  Jumping  Hare,  237 

Porcupine,  237 

Chinchilla,  239 

Viscacha,  240 

Agouti,  240 

Guinea  Pig,  241 

Capybara,  242 

Hare,  242 

Rabbit,  245 

Pika,  248 
Roe  Deer,  351 
Rorqual,  407 
Royal  Antelope,  336 
Royal  Hart,  347 
Ruffled  Lemur,  71 
RUMINANTIA,  291 
Rumination,  292 

SABLE,  167 

Sable  Antelope,  329 

Sacred  Monkey,  63 

Saddle-back  Seal,  195 

Saiga  Antelope,  334 

Saki,  69 

Sambar  Deer,  362 

Schomburgk's  Deer,  364 

SCIURID^ : 

Squirrel,  Red,  211 
„         Black,  213 
„         Grey,  213 
„        Taguan  Flying, 
214 

Polatouche,  215 

Assapan,  215 

Chipmunk,  216 

Marmot,  217 

Woodchuck,2l8 

Prairie  Dog,  218 
SCIUROMORPHA.2II 
Sea  Bear,  200 

„   Cow,  397 

„   Elephant,  196 

„    Horse,  203 

„    Leopard,  196 
Seals  (see  Pinnipedia),  191 
Sealskin,  200 

SEMNOPITHECIN^),  53 
SEMNOPITHECUS,  62 
Serval,  130 
Sha,  315 

Sheep  (see  Ovidae),  310 
Sheep  and  Goat  compared, 

309 

Shetland  Pony,  281 
Shrew,  Common,  98 


462 


INDEX 


Shrew,  Elephant,  100 

TAGUAN   FLYING   SQUIR- 

Vervet Monkey,  53 

„       Pigmy,  99 
„       Tree,  101 

REL,  214 
Tahr,  321 

Vicuna,  382 
Virginian  Deer,  360 

„      Water,  99 

TALPID^E,  94 

Virginian  Opossum,  447 

Siamang,  51 
Sika  Deer,  365 

Tamanoir,  424 
Tamarin,  Lion,  70 

Viscacha,  240 
VIVERRID^E  : 

Silver  Fox,  158 

Tana,  Tupai,  101 

Civet,  141 

SIMIID.E,  39 

Tanrec,  100   • 

Ichneumon,  142 

SIMPLICIDENTATA, 

TAPIRID^J  : 

Mongoose,  143 

211 

Tapir,  American,  273 

Genet,  144 

Sing-sing  Antelope,  330 

„     Malayan,  273 

Paradoxure,  144 

SIRENIA: 

TARDIGRADA,  421 

Palm  Civet,  144 

Manatee,  397 

Tarpan,  280 

Binlurong,  144 

Dugong,  399 

Tarsier,  74 

Suricate,  144 

Skeleton,  the,  Description 
of: 

Tasmanian  Devil,  444 
Wolf.  445 

Cynogale,  145 
Vlacke  Vark,  390 

Man,  18 

Teeth  of  Man,  23 

Vole,  Field,  230 

Monkey,  34 

Teledu,  173 

„     Water,  232 

Bat,  80 

Tendrac,  101 

Cat,  107 
Seal,  191 

Thoth,  58 
Three-toed  Sloth,  422 

WALLABY,  437 
Walrus,  203 

Elephant,  254 

Thylacine,  445 

Wapiti,  358 

Horse,  275 
Kangaroo,  431 

Tiger,  117 
Tiger-  Wolf,  138 

Wart  Hog,  389 
Waterbuck,  329 

Skunk,  172 
Slender  Loris,  73 
Sloth,  422 

Toddy  Cat,  144 
TRAGULID^,  371 
TRAGULINA,  371 

Water  Buffalo,  305 
Water  Deer,  366 
Water  Hog,  242 

Sloth  Bear,  188 
Slow  Loris,  73 

Tree  Cat,  144 
Tree  Kangaroo,  436 

Water  Mole,  454 
Water  Rat,  228 

Snow  Leopard,  126 
SOLID  HORNED  RUMI- 
NANTS, 342 

Tree  Shrew,  101 
TRICHECHID^E,  192 
TUPAIID^,  101 

Water  Shrew,  99 
Water  Vole,  232 
Weasel,  160 

Spotted  Cuscus,  439 
Spotted  Dasyure,  444 
Spotted  Deer,  362 

Tur,  322 
Two-toed  Sloth,  423 
TYLOPADA,  372 

Whale  (see  Cetacea),  403 
Whalebone,  404 
Whiskered  Bat,  85 

Spotted  Hyaena,  138 
SORICID^E,  98 
Spanish  Lynx,  132 
„       Wild  Goat,  322 
Species,  Origin  of,  37 
Spectacled  Bear,  188 
Spermaceti,  412 
Spermaceti  Whale,  411 
Spider  Monkey,  65 
Spiny  Mouse,  236 
Springbok,  326 
Squirrel    (see    Sciuridze), 

UNGKA  APE,  51 
UNGULATA,  251 

Unicorn,  271 
Urchin,  92 
Urial,  315 
URSID^E  : 
Bear,  Brown,  181 
,      Grizzly,  183 
,       Syrian,  184 
,       Polar,  185 
,      Black,  1  88 

White  Bear,  185 
White  Coat  Seal,  195 
White-eyelid  Monkey,  61 
White-lipped  Peccary,  391 
White-nosed  Monkey,  61 
White  Rhinoceros,  271 
White-tailed  Gnu,  331 
Wide-nosed  Monkeys,  64 
Wildebeest,  331 
Wild  Horse,  280,  282 
Wolf,  151 
Wolf,  Aard,  140 

211 

Stone  Marten,  166 

,       Malayan,  188 
,      Spectacled,  188 

Wolverene,  168 
\Voodchuck  218 

SUID.E,  383 
SUINA  : 
Boar,  Wild,  383 

„     Sloth,  188 
Ursine  Dasyure,  444 
Urson,  238 

Woolly  Cheetah,  133 
Woolly  Kangaroo,  436 

Swine,  Domestic,  386 

Urus,  295 

Babyrussa,  388 

YAK,  300 

Wart  Hog,  389 
Peccary,  391 

VAMPIRE  BAT,  87 
Variegated    Spider    Mon- 

Yapock, 449 
Yellow  Baboon,  56 

Hippopotamus,  392 

key,  67 

Suricate,  144 

Venada  Deer,  361 

ZEBRA,  287 

Swamp  Deer,  363 

Vertebra,  20 

Zebra  Wolf,  445 

Swine  (see  Suina),  382 

Vertebral  Column,  20 

Zebu,  297 

Syrian  Bear,  184 

Vertebrate  Animals,  9,  10 

Zorilla,  171 

UNWIN  BROTHERS,  LIMITED.  THE  GRESHAM  PRESS,  WOKING  JjND  LONDON. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 

This  book  i$^pjj£  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 

''"'>«•  /•  •.«'- 


— v'hir%u 


4 
DEC  1  6  1353 

MAYS     1955 
APR  2 11955 


LD  21-100m-7,'52(A2528sl6)476 


